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VOYNUK Skip to content Osmanlı döneminde Rumeli’de hıristiyanlardan oluşturulan askerî teşkilâta verilen ad.
Osmanlılar’ın Rumeli’deki fetihleri sırasında kendi bünyelerine kattıkları filorici, martolos gibi hıristiyan askerî gruplardan biri olup Slavca “asker” anlamındaki voynik kelimesinden gelmektedir. Osmanlı kaynaklarında voynak , voyneyk şeklinde de geçer. Kelimenin sonuna Farsça çoğul eki getirilerek yapılan voynugân da kullanılmıştır. Voynuk kelimesi ilk Osmanlı tahrir kayıtlarında yer alır. Bunların içinde 835 (1431-32) tarihli Arvanid Defteri , Fâtih Sultan Mehmed dönemine ait Semendire (BA, TD , nr. 16, s. 10), 871 (1466-67) tarihli Vidin (BA, MAD , nr. 18), yine aynı tarihli Tırhala (İnalcık, Fatih Devri , s. 165), 872 (1467-68) tarihli Braniçevo (Stoyakoviç, s. 17-31), 883 (1478) tarihli Hersek (İnalcık, Fatih Devri, s. 154) ve 885 (1480) tarihli Niğbolu defterleri sayılabilir. Ayrıca Fâtih Sultan Mehmed’in son dönemlerinde ve II. Bayezid devrinde kaleme alınmaya başlanan Osmanlı kroniklerinde de voynuklar hakkında bilgi verilmiştir. Buna göre voynuk teşkilâtı Timurtaş Paşa tarafından I. Murad zamanında Osmanlı Devleti’nin Balkan topraklarında kurulmuştur. Voynukların coğrafî dağılımına bakılacak olursa bunların Filibe-Sofya-Niş, Selânik-Niş-Belgrad güzergâhı üzerinde, Semendire-Braniçevo-Vidin bölgesinde, Kesriç, Hersek ve Bosna’da bulundukları görülür. Voynuklarla ilgili ilk defterlerin Arnavutluk, Vidin, Tırhala, Braniçevo, Hersek ve Niğbolu’ya ait olması voynuk teşkilâtının büyük ölçüde bu bölgelerin insanlarıyla teşkil edildiğini ortaya koyar. Adı geçen bölgelerden en önce Bulgaristan’ın fethedildiği ve daha sonra voynukların Bulgarlar’la özdeşleştirildiği göz önüne alınırsa voynuk uygulamasının ilk defa Bulgaristan’da gerçekleştirildiği sonucuna varılabilir. Esasen voynuk teşkilâtı içerisinde Bulgarlar’ın önemli yer tuttuğu bilinmektedir. İlk dönem Osmanlı kanunnâmelerinden voynukluğun, daha çok vergilerini filori ile ödedikleri için “filorici” denilen ve Timok-Tuna kavşak bölgesinde yaygın biçimde görülen Eflak teşkilâtı ile de alâkalı olduğu anlaşılır (Beldiceanu, REI , XXXIV [1966], s. 84-132; Kayapınar, s. 243-288). Voynukların bulunduğu bölge voynuk sancağı olarak Rumeli beylerbeyiliği teşkilâtı içinde yer almıştır.
XV. yüzyılın başlarına kadar uzanan tahrir defterleri ve kanunnâmelere göre voynuklar Osmanlı öncesinde “voyini/voynitsi” diye adlandırılan küçük asilzade sınıfı temsilcileriydi. Osmanlılar, hıristiyan sipahiler gibi eskiden beri voynuk olanları askerî sistemlerine dahil etmekte bir sakınca görmediler. Bu durum tedrîcî fetih siyasetinin de bir aşamasıydı (İnalcık, Doğu Batı , s. 61-84). Voynuklar savaşçı özelliklerini XV. yüzyıl boyunca sürdürdü. XVI. yüzyılın ilk çeyreğinden sonra durum giderek değişti. İlk dönemlerde teşkilât sefere katılan voynuklarla yedekleri yamaklardan müteşekkildi. Voynukluğun esasını baştinaya (baba toprağı, baba çiftliği) sahip olmaları teşkil ediyordu. Bu da onları normal reâyâdan ayıran önemli bir özellikti. Voynuklar baştinalarının bulunduğu köylerde “primkür” ve “lagator” denilen hıristiyan kökenli Osmanlı askerlerine bağlıydı (Beldiceanu, Turcica , VIII/1 [1976], s. 277-278). Primkür ve lagatorlar da bölgenin çeribaşısının emrindeydi. Müslüman olan çeribaşılar bölgenin voynuk beyine, voynuk beyi de mîrâhor ağasına tâbiydi. 1545 tarihli Pojega Sancağı Kanunnâmesi’nde nahiye kethüdâsının “knez”, köy kethüdâlarının primkür ve “teklice” diye adlandırıldığı dikkati çeker (bk. ÇERİBAŞI ).
Voynukların görevleri sefere ve akınlara katılmaktı. Adı geçen kanunnâmede bu görevler uçlarda istihbarat, düşmanın durumunu araştırmak, mızrakları, kalkanları, diğer savaş aletleri ve atlarıyla uçlarda, askerî seferlerde hizmet etmek şeklinde belirtilmiştir (Akgündüz, V, 333). Barış döneminde de voynukların önemli geçit yerlerini nöbetleşe korumak, kale muhafızlığı yapmak ve varoşları beklemek gibi hizmetleri söz konusuydu (a.g.e. , II, 60, 73). Voynuklar görev bakımından hem martoloslara hem de derbendcilere benziyordu. Barış zamanında bu görevlerin dışında saray ahırlarında çalışır, hassa atlarına bakar ve çayırları biçerlerdi. Voynuklar bu işleri bağlı oldukları lagatorlar ve çeribaşılarıyla birlikte yerine getirirlerdi. Görev sonrasında mîrâhordan hizmetlerini tamamladıklarını gösteren bir tezkire alıp baştinalarının bulunduğu köylerine dönerlerdi. Barış ve savaş dönemlerindeki hizmetlerini üç ya da dört kişiden oluşan ve “gönder” denilen askerî ocak içinde ifa ederlerdi. “Mızrak, kargı” anlamına gelen gönder kelimesinin Grekçe “kontarion”dan türediği belirtilmektedir (Beldiceanu, SOF , sy. 24 [1965], s. 107-108). Osmanlı belgelerinde gönder kelimesi, savaşta vezirlerin ve ordunun ileri gelenlerinin atlarına bakmak üzere teşkil edilen bir sınıf için de kullanılmıştır. Gönder mensupları görevlerini nöbetleşe yerine getirirlerdi. Nöbeti gelen gönder üyesine voynuk denilirken diğerleri yamak diye adlandırılırdı. Yamakların da yedekleri “zevâid” kaydedilen voynukların kardeşleri ya da oğullarıydı. Voynuk ya da yamak görevini yapamaz duruma geldiğinde kardeşleri veya oğulları sisteme dahil edilirdi.
Bu teşkilâta kimlerin alınacağını ve sayılarını tesbit için Osmanlı döneminde voynugân defterleri tutulmuştur (BA, MAD , nr. 81, s. 2-5). Bu işlemi gerçekleştirmek üzere önce padişah tarafından bir emin ve kâtip voynuk tahririyle görevlendirilir, bu kişiler Rumeli’de voynuk bulunan şehirlere, kasabalara ve köylere gider, voynuk ve yamakların mevcudiyetini tesbit ederlerdi. Eğer noksanları varsa noksanı voynuk zevâidi voynuk oğullarından, kardeşlerinden, haymanadan tamamlar, bunlar kâfi gelmezse eskiden voynuk zevâidi olup raiyyet yazılanlar belirlenir, bunların arasından voynuk yazılırdı (Akgündüz, IV, 657). Voynukların tasarruf ettikleri baştina “bağımsız, miras olarak bırakılamayan, hibe edilemeyen, satılamayan, şer‘î ve örfî vergilerden, ispenceden, haraçtan, avârız-ı dîvâniyyeden ve tekâlîf-i örfiyyeden muaf çiftlik” şeklinde tanımlanabilir. Baştina sadece voynuk olan başka birine ve öncelikle ölen voynuğun voynuk olan oğluna ya da akrabasına, bunların yokluğu halinde başka bir voynuğa geçerdi. Voynuklar baştinanın yanı sıra bazan timar da tasarruf ederlerdi. 1467-1468 tarihli Tetovo bölgesine ait bir defterde Voynuk Nikola’nın ve ortaklarının timarı kaydedilmiştir (Cvetkova, Ar.Ott. , VIII [1983], s. 164).
Voynukların haraçtan, ispenceden, baştinasında ekip biçtiklerinin öşründen, resm-i kovandan, resm-i hınzırdan ve 100 koyuna kadar koyun resminden muaf tutulduğu 1516 tarihli Niğbolu Kanunnâmesi’nde belirtilmiştir. Ancak bu vergi muafiyeti sadece voynuğun kendisiyle sınırlıydı. Voynuğun oğulları, kardeşleri ve akrabaları varsa 1516’da Bosna örneğinde olduğu gibi kişi başına hazineye 30 akçe cizye ödemek zorundaydı. Voynuk kendi baştinası dışında başka yerde üretim yaparsa buranın vergilerini verir, ancak avârız türü vergilerden muaf tutulurdu. Gönder içinde o yıl nöbetle hizmete gidecek voynuğa yamaklar “resm-i gönder” (âdet-i nîze) adıyla akçe verirlerdi. Nîze kelimesi de Farsça’da “mızrak” anlamına gelmektedir. XVI. yüzyılda sefere katılan voynuk 6 akçe, diğer iki yamak 5’er akçe öderdi (Akgündüz, III, 418). Yazıldıkları köyün dışında başka bir sipahinin toprağında ziraat yapan voynuklar elde ettikleri ürüne ait öşrün yarısını timar sahibine vermek mecburiyetindeydi. Voynuğa ait baştinadaki bağları ve bahçeleri işleyen kimse de ürünün dörtte birini voynuğa verirdi.
Voynuklar nâdiren timar tasarruf ederken voynuk beyleri ve çeribaşıları zeâmet ve timar tasarruf ederlerdi. Voynuklar bâd-ı hevâ, arûs resmi ve cürm ü cinayet gibi vergileri voynuk beylerine ve çeribaşılarına öderlerdi. Voynuk bir suç işlediğinde kadı huzurunda suçu sabit olduktan sonra çeribaşı tarafından cezalandırılırdı. Çeribaşılar, voynuklardan aldıkları vergi karşılığında onları lagatorlarıyla beraber İstanbul’a götürüp çayır ve hassa hizmeti yaptırmaktaydı. Çeribaşılar, bu görevleri yerine getirdikleri sürece zeâmet ve timar tasarrufu kaydıhayat şartıyla ellerinde kalırdı (a.g.e. , IV, 480). Voynuk teşkilâtı 17 Rebîülâhir 1102 (18 Ocak 1691) tarihinde başdefterdarın teklifiyle kaldırıldı. Bu sırada Filibe, Sofya, Niğbolu ve Silistre sancaklarında 8909 voynuğun görev yaptığı tesbit edilmiştir. Ancak duyulan ihtiyaç üzerine 9 Şâban 1104’te (15 Nisan 1693) teşkilât yeniden teşkil edildi ve 1878’de Bulgar Prensliği’nin kuruluşuna kadar varlığını sürdürdü (Ercan, Osmanlı İmparatorluğunda Bulgarlar ve Voynuklar , s. 93-95).
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
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a.mlf., Osmanlı İmparatorluğunda Bulgarlar ve Voynuklar , Ankara 1989.
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a.mlf., “Quatre actes de Mehmed II concernant les valaques des Balkans slaves”, Südost-Forschungen , XXIV, München 1965, s. 113-118.
a.mlf., “Sur les valaques des Balkans slaves à l’époque ottomane (1450-1550)”, REI , XXXIV (1966), s. 84-132.
a.mlf., “A propos d’un registre de cadastre de 1455, bürüme, günlük, lagator”, Turcica , VIII/1, Paris 1976, s. 272-278.
B. Cvetkova, “Influence exercée par certaines institutions de Byzance et des Balkans du moyen âge sur le système feodal ottoman”, Byzantinobulgarica , I, Sofia 1962, s. 237-257.
a.mlf., “Early Ottoman Tahrir Defters as Source for Studies on the History of Bulgaria and the Balkans”, Ar.Ott. , VIII (1983), s. 133-213.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2013 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 43. cildinde, 126-127 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.