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VOYVODA Skip to content Eflak, Boğdan ve Erdel beyleri için kullanılan unvan.
Slavca “asker” anlamındaki voy ile (voyska ) “sürmek” anlamındaki voda dan (vodity ) meydana gelmekte olup “asker sürücü” demektir. Buradan hareketle kelime “bir memleketin başkumandanı ve idarecisi” mânasını kazanmıştır. Polonya ve Romanya tarihinde de voyvoda geçer (Voyvoda Kiyovski / Kiev voyvodası). Yine “askerî şef” mânasında Sırbistan tarihinde bu unvana rastlanır. XVI-XVII. yüzyıllarda Polonya’da krallığın büyük illeri voyvodalıktı. Büyük voyvodalıkların görevlileri aynı zamanda devletin en büyük ricâliydi. Bunlardan bazıları şunlardır: Podolya, Rutenya (Ruski, Russiae), Krakovya (Krákowski), Poznañ, Lublin, Szñyathin, Lêczyca, Vilna (Wilenski), Culm (Chelminski). Romanya tarihinde ise voyvoda ve özellikle büyük voyvoda memleketin başkumandanıydı. Latince kaynaklarda dux , Yunanca’da strategos , yine Slavca gospodar /gospodin , Latince princeps ve palatinus terimleri de bu anlamda kullanılırdı. Osmanlı resmî belgelerinde bunların karşılığı bey, daha çok da Eflak, Boğdan söz konusu olduğunda voyvoda idi. Erdel için de voyvoda kullanılmıştır, fakat daha çok Erdel kralı denilirdi. Voyvodanın eşine Romence’de doamna adı verilirdi, Osmanlı belgelerinde bu unvan domna şeklinde geçer.
Aslında voyvoda, hâkimiyeti Tanrı’dan almış müstakil bir hükümdar gibi telakki ediliyordu. Ancak XVI. yüzyılın ortalarından itibaren Osmanlı hâkimiyeti altında artık bazı voyvodalar, “Voyvodalığım devletlü padişahtan alınmıştır” şeklinde tâbilik şartlarını ifade etmeye başladılar. Osmanlı belgelerinde Eflak/Boğdan voyvodaları için kullanılan elkāb diğer hıristiyan hükümdarlarınınkine benziyordu (kıdvetü’l-ümerâi’l-milleti’l-Mesîhiyye ümmet-i küberâi’t-tâifetü’n-Nasrâniyye). Voyvodanın seçilmesi/tayini ilgili memleketin kanununa göre karma seçim – irsiyet sistemine dayanırdı. Prensip olarak her voyvodanın boyarlar/beyler tarafından seçilmesi ve adayın da voyvodaoğlu/beyzade olması gerekiyordu. Pratikte büyük boyarlar “memleketin adına” toplanırdı. Adayları ise gerçekte ne olursa olsun şeklen voyvoda oğlu/hânedanın üyesi diye ilân ederlerdi. En kuvvetli ve dışarıdan desteklenen boyar grubunun adayı domn/voyvoda seçilirdi. 1530’lu yıllardan itibaren seçilen voyvodanın padişah tarafından tasdiki şarttı. Öte yandan Osmanlı hükümeti ülkenin seçim iradesine mümkün olduğunca saygı gösterirdi. Meselâ 1552’de voyvodanın mutfağından sorumlu, mütevazi bir görevde, hânedanla da hiç ilgisi bulunmayan Petre Stolnicul (Lapuşneanu) adlı bir Boğdan (Moldova) boyarı Polonyalılar’ın askerî yardımıyla rakibini yenerek domn ilân edildi. Resmî belgelerde kendisini büyük voyvoda Alexandru cel Bun’un (1400-1432) torunu ve gerçek vârisi olarak takdim ediyordu. Osmanlı Devleti de onun voyvodalığını onayladı; 1564’te ikinci defa onayladı. Diğer taraftan gerçek bir beyzade yalnız bu niteliği sayesinde voyvoda olamazdı. 1693 Martında Boğdan Voyvodası Constantin Kantemir ölürken büyük boyarlar (“memleketin toplantısı”), yirmi yaşındaki küçük oğlu Dimitrie’yi (Osmanlı klasik mûsikisinin parlak temsilcilerinden Dimitrie Kantemir) Boğdan voyvodası seçmelerine rağmen Osmanlılar bu seçimi onaylamadı.
Voyvoda adaylığı için sağlıklı ve en az on beş yaşında olmak gerekiyordu. Yeniden iktidara gelmelerini önlemek amacıyla Bizans’ta olduğu gibi Eflak/Boğdan’da da tahttan indirilen veya isyan eden prenslerin burnu kesilirdi. Kanuna göre voyvodalık ömür boyu verilirdi. XVI. yüzyılın ikinci yarısında boyarların voyvodalık konusundaki hevesleri ve iktidar çekişmeleri sebebiyle idarecilikte belli bir süre kalmaları öngörüldü. Meselâ aynı dönemde Eflak’ta voyvodaların görev süresi ortalama üçer yıldı ve on yedi voyvoda iktidara gelmişti. Boğdan’da ise bu ortalama iki buçuk yıldı ve bu dönemde yirmi bir voyvoda görev yapmıştı. Voyvoda olabilmek için söz sahibi Osmanlı ricâline rüşvet verenler de vardı. Âlî Mustafa Efendi’ye göre sık sık voyvoda değişiminde rüşvetin payı büyüktür (Künhü’l-ahbâr , I, 245).
XVII. yüzyıldan itibaren voyvodalığın her yıl yenilenmesi gerekiyordu ve bu vesileyle küçük bir vergi (mukarrer) ödenirdi; ayrıca her üç senede büyük mukarrer verilirdi. Boğdan-Eflak taraflarını iyi bilen Evliya Çelebi’ye göre bu ülkeler Dîvân-ı Hümâyun memurlarını ve Devlet-i Aliyye’nin vezirlerini zenginleştiriyordu; Boğdan-Eflak voyvodalığı Bağdat ve hatta Mısır beylerbeyiliğinden daha kazançlıydı (Seyahatnâme , V, 350). Dîvân-ı Hümâyun veya kaptan-ı deryâ eski baştercümanlarının arasından seçilen Fenerli Rum voyvodaları döneminde (1711, 1716-1821) Eflak/Boğdan beylerinin diplomatik rolü giderek arttı. Çünkü Avrupa olayları hakkında düzenli bir istihbarat şebekesi özelliği taşıyordu. 1754’te Polonya’daki Fransız büyükelçisi Comte de Broglie’ye verilen tâlimatta, “Boğdan ve Eflak voyvodaları Bâbıâli’ye haraçgüzâr olmalarına rağmen Avrupa prensleri gibi görünüyorlar” denmişti.
Bunların yetkilerine gelince voyvoda memleketin bütün topraklarının resmî sahibi kabul ediliyordu (bu durumun hukukî formülü “dominium eminens” idi). Ayrıca büyük voyvoda olan her prens memleketin başkumandanıydı. Kendi memleketinde domnul/voyvoda iktidarını hiç kimseyle paylaşmazdı. Voyvoda aynı zamanda ülkenin en yüksek yargıcıydı ve tebaasına büyük boyarlar dahil her türlü cezayı verebilirdi. Bu konuda Osmanlı padişahı voyvoda ile boyarları arasındaki ilişkilere genellikle karışmazdı; daha doğrusu Tuna’nın kuzeyinde kuvvetli bir iktidar ve istikrar isterdi. Fakat diğer taraftan boyarlar her zaman Dîvân-ı Hümâyun’a arz ya da şikâyetlerini sunarlardı ve voyvodaya karşı başvurabilecekleri güçlü bir mercileri vardı. Divan bu durumlarda taraflar arasında denge kurmaya çalışırdı. Kiliseye gelince Romen voyvodaları Bizans imparatorları gibi kilisenin resmî şefleri değildi, ancak “de facto” bu kurumun başıydı, onu denetler, hatta kendi kanunlarını empoze edebilirdi. Memleketin iç işlerinde ise voyvodalar tam özerkti. Ülkesinde Osmanlı idarecileri bulunmadığı için vergi sistemini kontrol eder, Osmanlı Devleti’ne verilen haracı da kendisi toplardı. Öte yandan dış işlerinde Eflak ve Boğdan voyvodaları Osmanlı yüksek ricâli arasında sayılırdı. Kanûnî Sultan Süleyman döneminde 1530’lu yıllardan itibaren Eflak/Boğdan reâyâsının Osmanlı reâyâsı gibi olduğu anlayışı hâkimdi; yani Eflak/Boğdan memleketleri “dârü’l-ahd” içinde bulunduğu halde Osmanlı genel sistemine dahil kabul ediliyordu. Bu durum uluslararası hukuk açısından 1878 Berlin Kongresi’ne kadar devam etti.
Voyvodalık hükümet alâmetleri Osmanlı öncesi döneminde altın taç, bozdoğan ve asâdan oluşurdu. XV. yüzyıldan başlayarak özellikle 1530’lu yıllardan itibaren artık Osmanlı padişahı adına verilen alâmetler, üsküf (altın işlemeli ve beyaz balıkçıl sorguçlu başlık), alem/sancak, bozdoğan (Şam bozdoğanı) ya da topuz ve şimşir/kılıçla donatılmış bir attı. Boğdan’da altın taç 1564 yılına kadar resmen kullanıldı. Bu alâmetlerden gerçekte en önemlileri üsküf ve sancaktı (Orhonlu, s. 118-119). XVI. yüzyılın sonuna kadar sancak beylerine benzer şekilde Romen voyvodalarına birer tuğ verilirdi. XVII. yüzyıldan itibaren de beylerbeyiler gibi ikişer tuğ taşıdılar. Tek üç tuğlu olan voyvoda Gheorghe Duca olup üçüncü voyvodalığı esnasında (1678-1683) üç tuğ takmıştı; çünkü kendisi hem Boğdan voyvodası hem de Ukrayna’nın hatmanı konumundaydı.
Bir voyvodanın tayin prosedürü ve törenleri birkaç aşamadan meydana geliyordu. İlk önce Dîvân-ı Hümâyun’da teklif görüşülür, daha sonra padişah tarafından onaylanırdı. Ardından yeni voyvoda Dîvân-ı Hümâyun’da sadrazam tarafından kabul edilir ve Arz Odası’nda padişahın elini öperdi. Bu arada hükümet alâmetleri verilirdi. Saraydaki bu törenden sonra yeni voyvoda Ortodoks Rum Patrikhânesi’ne giderdi. Orada eskiden Bizans imparatorlarına taç giydirme törenlerinde olduğu gibi merasim yapılırdı. İstanbul’un fethi üzerine Romen voyvodaları, Rus çarlarından önce kendilerini Bizans’ın vârisleri ve Tuna’nın güneyindeki hıristiyanların hâmisi olarak görüyordu. İstanbul’daki törenlerin ardından Eflak voyvodası başşehir Bükreş’te, Boğdan voyvodası başşehir Yaş’ta metropolitlik katedralinde yerli metropolit tarafından “aziz yağ”la kutsanırdı. İstanbul’dan Tuna’nın kuzeyine kadar yeni voyvodalara parlak bir alay içinde bir dizi yeniçeri ve mehter takımı eşlik ederdi. Birkaç ay sonra da resmî berât-ı hümâyun Bükreş’e veya Yaş’a gelirdi. Yeni voyvodanın tayini esnasında ayrıca bazı resmî olay ve bayramlar vesilesiyle protokol hediyeleri adı altında voyvoda tarafından padişaha samur, hermin, kakum, sincap vb. çok pahalı kürkler, yirmi at, yetmiş şahin takdim edilirdi ve padişah tarafından voyvodaya değerli bir at, kumaş, para gibi in‘âmlar verilirdi. Bunun dışında haraçgüzâr ülkenin voyvodası sıfatıyla yeni tayin edilen prens her yıl haracını ödemekle mükellefti. Voyvodanın yardımcı yönetim organlarından en önemlisi büyük sadık boyarlar tarafından oluşturulan Sfatul Domnesc idi (voyvodalık kurulu). Fenerli-Rum voyvodaları döneminde bu kurula artık divan deniyordu. Bunun için voyvodanın Türk kâtibine de divan efendisi adı verilirdi.
İstanbul’da Romen voyvodalarının resmî temsilcisi (kapı kethüdâsı / kethüdâ-i bâb) vardı. Bunların sayısı bir ile altı arasında değişirdi. İçlerinden önde gelenine başkethüdâ denirdi. Osmanlı belgelerinde Boğdan/Eflak voyvodası kapı kethüdâsı (kethüdâ-i bâb-ı voyvoda-yi Boğdan/Eflak) tabiriyle kastedilen başkethüdâ idi. Zamanla voyvodaların durumu zayıfladığından bu temsilcilerin durumu da geriledi, eski diplomatik dokunulmazlıkları kalktı ve beylerbeyi kethüdâlarınınkine benzer bir statü kazandı. Bunlar vergi muafiyetine sahiptiler. Fener’deki ikametgâhlarına Boğdan sarayı ve Eflak sarayı denirdi (bk. BOĞDAN SARAYI ). 1774 Küçük Kaynarca Antlaşması’yla Romen prensliklerinin (Memleketeyn) eski özerkliği yeniden tesis edildiği için Eflak-Boğdan’ın İstanbul’daki temsilcilerine de artık maslahatgüzâr gibi diplomatik unvan verilmiştir.
1859-1862 yıllarında Boğdan ve Eflak prenslikleri birleşince ortaya çıkan (Küçük) Romanya’nın prensleri I. Alexandru Ioan Cuza (Kuza Bey) ve özellikle I. Carol de Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen’in İstanbul karşısındaki durumu ve uluslararası statüleri tamamen değişti. 1877’de tek taraflı ilân edilen bağımsızlık 1878 yılı Berlin Kongresi’nde resmen tanındı. Bundan sonra voyvoda sözü tarihe karıştı; buna rağmen halk dilinde kısaltılmış “vodã” şeklinde kullanımı sürdü. 1930’da veliahtlık hakları düşürülen ve dışarıda bulunan Carol, Romanya’ya gelip II. Carol unvanıyla 1918’de ortaya çıkan Birleşik (Büyük) Romanya’nın yeni kralı olunca eski kral (onun küçük oğlu) I. Mihai bu defa veliaht ve Mare Voievod de Alba Iulia (1 Aralık 1918 tarihinde Transilvanya Romenleri tarafından Romanya Krallığı ile birleşme kararının alındığı yer), yani “Alba Iulia büyük voyvodası” unvanını aldı. Ancak (mare) voievod unvanı sadece on yıl kullanıldı.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
BA, MD , nr. 64, s. 408; nr. 72, s. 357.
Âlî Mustafa Efendi, Künhü’l-ahbâr , İstanbul 1277, I, 245.
Evliya Çelebi, Seyahatnâme , V, 350.
N. Iorga, Byzance après Byzance , Bucureşti 1935, tür.yer.
Cengiz Orhonlu, Osmanlı Tarihine Âid Belgeler, Telhîsler: 1597-1607 , İstanbul 1970, s. 118-119.
M. Berindei – G. Veinstein, l’Empire ottoman et les pays roumains: 1544-1545 , Paris-Cambridge 1987, tür.yer.
Institutii Feudale din Tarile Romane Dictionar (haz. O. Sachelarie – N. Stoicescu), Bucureşti 1988, s. 171.
M. Maxim, l’Empire ottoman au nord du Danube et l’autonomie des principautes roumaines au XVIe siècle: Etudes et documents , Istanbul 1999, s. 14-41, 157-171.
a.mlf., Romano-Ottomanica, Essays & Documents from the Turkish Archives , Istanbul 2001, s. 137-149.
Dimitrie Cantemirii Principis Moldaviae Descriptio Moldaviae Antiqui et Hodierni Status Moldaviae (ed. Dan Slusanschi), Bucureşti 2006, s. 134-167.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2013 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 43. cildinde, 127-129 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.