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YAYA ve MÜSELLEM Skip to content Osmanlılar’da geri hizmet kıtalarından oluşan askerî teşkilât.
Osmanlı ordusunun ilk maaşlı piyade birliği olup muhtemelen Orhan Bey döneminde kurulmuştur. Başlangıçta diğer sınır kuvvetleri gibi Osmanlı Beyliği’nin asıl gücü atlı birliklere dayanıyordu. Fakat zamanla, eski Roma ordusu savaş düzenine sahip Bizanslılar veya onların ücretli birlikleriyle yapılan çarpışmalarda daha çok sayıda yaya askerden meydana gelen benzer tarzda bir piyade gücüne ihtiyaç duyuldu. Bafeus savaşı sırasında piyadelerin koruduğu birliklerin atlı saldırılar karşısında geri çekilmeyi başarması, bu yıllardan itibaren Osman Bey ve silâh arkadaşları için önemli bir örnek ve tecrübe teşkil etmiş olmalıdır. Dönemin kaynaklarına göre Osmanlı ordusunun askerî grupları içinde yaya birliklerinin de yer aldığı tahmin edilen ilk savaş 1329’da Pelekanon’da yapılmıştı. Orhan Bey, bugünkü Eskihisar yakınlarında Bizans ordusunu, kuvvetlerini üç parçaya bölerek karşılamış, atlı saldırılarla üzerine çektiği Bizans piyadelerine karşı kendi yaya birliklerini devreye sokmuştu. Ancak bu yayaların dâimî maaşlı asker olup olmadıkları hakkında kesin bilgi yoktur. Muhtemelen I. Murad döneminde özellikle Balkanlar’da yapılan savaşlarda düzenli ve sürekli yaya birliklerine duyulan ihtiyaç yeni bir askerî düzenlemeyi beraberinde getirdi. Aslında daha Orhan Bey devrinde Osmanlı atlı birlikleri ücretle Bizans İmparatoru VI. Ioannes Kantakuzenos tarafından istihdam edilmişti. Bu durum, bölükler halinde teşkilâtlanan savaşçı birliklerin tecrübe kazanmasına önemli bir katkı sağlamış olmalıdır. Bu tecrübenin ışığında Osmanlılar’ın da kendi iç askerî sistemlerine maaşları savaş veya sefer vakti ödenmek üzere bir yaya gücü katmış bulunması mümkündür.
İlk Osmanlı kronikleri sefer sırasında ücretle hizmete alınan köylü gençlerin askerî sınıfa dahil edildiklerini, bunlara ak börk giydirilerek timarlı atlı birliklerden ayrıldıklarını ve bir bakıma ulûfeli hassa ordusu haline geldiklerini, bunun ise Orhan Bey’in kardeşi Alâeddin Bey tarafından gerçekleştirildiğini belirtir ve yeniçeri teşkilâtının menşeini de buna bağlarlar. Söz konusu kaynaklara göre o sırada Bursa kadılığı yapan Çandarlı ailesinden Kara Halil Hayreddin Paşa köylerden yaya ve atlı asker toplayıp savaş süresince bunlara ücret verileceğini, devamlılık halinde ise her birine geçimleri için çiftlik tahsis edileceğini bildirmiştir. Bu sebeple yaya tahriri yapılmış, timar alamayanlar birer çiftlik edinerek askerî hizmete girmiştir. Yaya olamayanlar ise kendilerinin bunlara yamak yazılmasını, seferlere de nöbetleşe gidilmesini talep etmişlerdir (Âşıkpaşazâde, Târih , s. 117-118; Neşrî, s. 74). Bu bilgiler sorgulanmadan yaya ve müsellem teşkilâtının kuruluşu için esas kabul edilmiştir. Ancak söz konusu kaynaklar XV. yüzyılda kaleme alındığından kendi dönemlerindeki askerî teşkilât çerçevesinde ve yine o zamana ait terimlerle böyle bir anlatıma başvurmuş olmalıdır. Burada muhtemelen timar sisteminin ortaya çıkışı ve teşkilâtlanmasıyla yaya birliklerinin teşekkülü konusu oluşum süreçlerine dikkat edilmeden birbirine karıştırılmıştır. Ayrıca kaynaklar, yeniçeri teşkilâtının kuruluşunu aynı temele oturtup durumu daha da karmaşık hale getirmiştir. Ancak burada önemli olan husus, yaya teşkilâtının ortaya çıkışıyla ilgili geleneksel anlatımın Orhan Bey dönemine kadar götürülmesi ve ilk Osmanlı askerî teşkilâtı içine doğrudan merkezden ücret alan piyadelerin dahil edilmesidir. Bu durum, dâimî asker istihdamını sağlayacak malî imkânların mevcudiyetiyle doğrudan bağlantılıdır. I. Murad devrinde hassa askerlerinin “yeniçeri” adıyla devlet kapısında hizmete alınmaya başlanması muhtemelen, köylülerden toplanan yayaları kendilerine tahsis edilen çiftliklerin geliriyle geçinen ve ocaklar halinde teşkilâtlanan farklı bir yapıya dönüştürmüştür. Kaynaklarda bunların sefer esnasında günlük 1 akçe aldıkları, sefer sonunda ise günlükleri kesilip her birinin kendi memleketinde ziraatla uğraştığı, ancak bunun karşılığında fevkalâde vergilerden muaf tutuldukları bildirilir. Vergi muafiyeti hususu yaya gücünün bu durumunu ifade eden “müsellem” kelimesiyle karşılanmış, böylece atlı yahut yaya olarak istihdam edilen bu birliklerin adı askerî terminolojide yaya ve müsellem şeklinde yer almıştır. Yayaların piyade, müsellemlerin atlı birliklerden meydana geldiği yolundaki ayırım ise muhtemelen sonraları ortaya çıkmıştır.
Yayaların özellikle XV. yüzyılın ortalarına kadar savaşlara fiilen katıldıkları ve önemli bir askerî güç oluşturdukları söylenebilir. I. Murad ve Yıldırım Bayezid dönemini anlatan bazı kaynaklarda bu birliklerin yayabaşılar idaresinde bulunduklarına dair bilgiler vardır. Özellikle Karamanoğulları ile yapılan Frenk Yazısı savaşında (788/1386) I. Murad kendi hassa askerleri olan yaya ve atlıları merkezin önüne ve arkasına yerleştirirken yayabaşıları Saruca Paşa, İnecik Balaban, Tovıca Balaban, İlyas Bey ve Müstecab Subaşı’yı yayalarıyla sağ ve sol kollara diğer askerlerin yanına koymuştu (Neşrî, s. 105). Bu bilgi eğer doğruysa yeniçeri ile yaya askerin birbirinden ayrılmış olduğuna, yeniçerilerin padişahla birlikte merkezde, yaya birliklerin sağ ve sol kolda çarpışan atlı askerlerin yanlarına yerleştirildiğine işaret eder. I. Kosova Savaşı’nda da (791/1389) Saruca Paşa’nın yayaları azeb askerleriyle beraber sağ kolda yerlerini almışlardı. XV. yüzyıla ait tahrir kayıtları, yaya ve müsellemlerin özellikle Batı Anadolu kesiminde ve Rumeli yakasında Meriç vadisiyle Trakya’da teşkilâtlandığını gösterir. Bu durumda sivil köylü/çiftçilerden asker istihdamı konusunun coğrafî çerçevesine dikkat edildiğinde, Anadolu’da Orhan Bey döneminden itibaren başlayıp Yıldırım Bayezid’in beylikleri doğrudan kendi idaresi altına aldığı 1390’lara, Rumeli tarafında ise 1370’lere kadar geçen süreçte elde edilen topraklar üzerinde bulunduğu anlaşılır. Teşkilâtın daha sonraki fetihlere rağmen coğrafî alanının genişletilmemiş olması, II. Murad döneminde artık bunların giderek savaşçı fonksiyonlarının azaltıldığına işaret eder.
Bu askerî teşkilâtın yaya ve müsellem şeklinde ayırımıyla ilgili bilgiler, Mustafa Çelebi’nin (Düzmece) 1421’de II. Murad’ın tahta çıkışı sırasındaki isyanına kadar gider. Buna göre Mustafa, Rumeli’nin yayasını müsellem etmiş, bazısına 50 akçe harçlık vermişti (Anonim Tevârîh-i Âl-i Osman , s. 61). Kaynakta, beş yayanın bir araya gelerek içlerinden birini reis edinip geriye kalanların “harçlıkçı” olarak 50’şer akçe vermeleri usulünün bu zamandan kaldığına atıf yapılır. Bundan da Rumeli yakasında teşkilâtlanan müsellemlerin aslında yaya oldukları ve müsellem kelimesinin tamamıyla vergi muafiyetini karşıladığı ve böylece bu terimin ortaya çıktığı anlaşılır. Söz konusu muafiyetin avârız türü vergileri kapsadığı açıktır. Zira bunlar ürettikleri mahsulün öşrünü kendi idarecilerine, yayabaşı ve sancak beyine ödemekteydiler. Böylece XV. yüzyılın ikinci çeyreğinden itibaren yaya ve müsellem teşkilâtı yeni bir sistem içine alınmış oldu. Bunların yaya olarak veya atlarıyla hizmete gitmelerinin söz konusu terimlerin ortaya çıkışında herhangi bir rolünün bulunmadığı söylenebilir.
Osmanlı askerî teşkilâtının geçirdiği değişime paralel şekilde zamanla savaşçı karakterlerini kaybettikleri anlaşılan yaya ve müsellemler tasarrufları altındaki ocak/çiftlik karşılığında ordunun geri hizmetinde yer almaya, ülke içinde maden, tersane, inşaat, nakliyat gibi hizmetlerde çalışmaya başladılar. Osmanlı kronikleri, onların geri hizmete alınmasını veya daha önce yerlerine yeniçeri teşkilâtının kurulması keyfiyetini disiplinsiz davranışlarına bağlar. Fakat durumun değişen savaş sistemiyle yakından ilgili olduğu söylenebilir. Bunlar, fiilî savaşçılıktan ziyade ordu içinde istihkâm alaylarına benzer bir görev yapmakla yükümlü kılındılar. Ordunun önünden gidip yolları ve köprüleri onarmak, top çekmek, iâşe vasıtalarını nakletmek gibi görevleriyle modern ordu teşkilâtının benzer birliklerinin ilk örneğini teşkil ettiler. Ayrıca Rumeli yakasına göç ettirilmiş yörüklerin de bunu andıran bir teşkilât içinde organize edildikleri ve yardımcı asker grupları içine alındıkları bilinmektedir (Gökbilgin, s. 19-29). Muhtemelen yayaların asıl kaynağını önceleri Anadolulu Türk köylüleri ve daha sonra yörüklerin oluşturduğu, zamanla ocakların geçirdiği sarsıntı sebebiyle yapılan yeni sayımlarda başı boş kimselerin, bağışlanmış kulların, kuloğullarının, hatta yer yer gayri müslim unsurların kaydedildiği dikkati çeker (BA, MD , nr. 41, s. 118, hk. 408). XV. yüzyılın ikinci yarısına ait bazı kayıtlardan yaya statüsünden kurtulma eğiliminin giderek arttığı anlaşılmaktadır. 1479 tarihli bir sicil kaydında, Anadolu vilâyetinde yaya yazılmaktan kurtulmak için tahrir görevlilerine veya kadılara rüşvet verme işinin yaygın duruma geldiği, hatta bunun önüne geçemeyen devletin “yaya ve müsellem irtişâ mukātaası” adıyla bir mukātaa teşkil ettiği görülmektedir (Akdağ, II, 297-299).
Yaya ve müsellemlerin hizmetlerine uygun teşkilâtlanmalarında, bir yaya ve onun yardımcıları durumundaki yamaklar tarafından tasarruf edilen ve ocak adı verilen ekilebilir bir arazi (çiftlik) esas alınmıştır. XV. yüzyıla ait yaya ve müsellem defterlerine göre genelde bir ocakta iki-dört (bazı bölgelerde sekize kadar çıkar) yamak bulunurdu. Bu sayılar bölgelere göre değişmekle birlikte genel prensip altı yedi kişilik bir ünitenin sürekliliği sağlayacak biçimde oluşturulmasıydı. XVI. yüzyılda ocakta kaydedilenlerin sayısının dört-on beş arasında değiştiği tesbit edilmiştir. Meselâ Saruhan bölgesinde aynı yüzyılda bir çiftlikte iki-on dokuz yamak hizmet veriyordu. Gelibolu’da ise bazı ocaklarda kırk elli kişi toplanmıştı. Tahrirler sırasında ocak mevcudu bir önceki tahrire göre tesbit edilir, kayıplar “mürde” ve “gaib” adı altında belirtilirdi. Bazı defterlerde ocakta küçük yaştaki yamakların yaşlarının belirtildiği, iki-on dört yaş arasındaki çocukların da kaydedildiği, bunların genelde mevcut yaya ve yamakların çocukları olduğu, hizmete gitme yaşının ise on dört olarak tesbit edildiği anlaşılmaktadır. 1575’te Manisa kazasındaki yaya çiftliklerinde kayıtlı 440 yamaktan 104’ünün iki-on dört yaş arasında bulunması ocakların durumu hakkında önemli bir veri sağlar. “Mürde” kelimesi ölenler yanında başka yerlere gidenleri de ifade etmekte, yapılan tahrirlerde bunlar, daha önceki sayımlarda kayıtlı olanların sağlam bir şekilde tahkiki için “atîk” ve “cedîd” şeklinde iki ayrı kategoride zikredilmektedir. Anadolu’daki yayalar çiftlikleri yamaklarıyla ortaklaşa tasarruf eder ve nöbetleşe hizmete giderken Rumeli kesimindekilerin ocak hisseleri baş ve yamak diye iki kısma ayrılmıştı. Yaya ve müsellemlere tahsis edilen çiftlikler toprağın verimine göre 70-150 dönüm arasında değişiyordu. Sayımlar sırasında bu çiftliklerin verimlerine göre durumları gözden geçirilir, eğer yetersizse ilâve yapılır, fazlalık varsa (zevâid) diğer ocaklara dağıtılır yahut “mevkuf” yazılarak bekletilirdi. Duruma göre bunlar tapu resmi alınıp reâyâ çiftliği haline getirilir ve timara tahsis edilirdi (BA, MAD , nr. 233, s. 27).
Atlı olarak hizmete gittikleri belirtilen müsellemlerin de toprak tasarruf sistemleri aynıydı. Yalnız Rumeli kesimindeki eşkinci müsellemler nisbeten farklı bir grup meydana getirmişti. Bunlar “çatallı, müşterekli” gibi tabirlerle anılırdı. Ayrıca “gerdan” kelimesinin de bu bağı nitelemek üzere kullanıldığı anlaşılmaktadır. Fâtih Sultan Mehmed döneminde bir baş müsellem, iki üç çatal/müşterek yayadan ve altı-sekiz yamaktan oluşan bir ocak özelliği taşıyordu. Bu ocaklarda yayalarla yamaklar arasında hizmete nöbetle gitme bakımından bir farklılık ortaya çıkmıştı. Yayalarda genellikle bir yaya hizmete gider, ertesi yıl bu hizmeti nöbetlisi olan yamağa devrederdi. Bu sistemde yayalar belirliydi ve yamaklar sefer hizmetiyle mükellef tutulmamıştı. Yamaklar yayaların ihtiyaçlarını karşılar, onlara harçlık verirlerdi. Bu uygulamanın aslında baştan beri yapıldığı, ancak ocaklara insan gücü takviyesindeki zorlukların yaya-yamak ilişkisini bölgelere göre değişikliğe uğrattığı söylenebilir (ayrıca bk. YAMAK ). 862 (1458) tarihli Kütahya müsellemleri defterinde müştereklerin nöbetleşe “bürüme” denilen zırhla sefere katılması, geri kalanların ise onlara yamak harçlığı vermesi yolundaki ifadeler bu durumu ortaya koyar. Ayrıca 869 (1464-65) tarihli Tekfurdağı Müsellem ve Yaya Defteri ’ne göre ocakların bir müsellem, iki çatal ve dokuz yamaktan oluştuğu, on iki kişilik düzenli grupların teşkil edildiği dikkati çeker (Arıkan, Atatürk Konferansları , s. 189).
Yaya ve müsellemler Anadolu ve Rumeli’de sancaklar halinde teşkilâtlandırılmıştır. Anadolu eyaletinde XVI. yüzyılda on iki sancakta yaya teşkilâtı mevcuttu (Hüdâvendigâr, Kütahya, Aydın, Karahisar, Saruhan, Menteşe, Bolu, Karesi, Ankara, Sultanönü, Kocaili, Hamîd) ve her birinin başında bir yaya sancak beyi vardı. Müsellemler ise bu sancaklarda dört grup altında toplanmıştı: Karahisar, Kütahya ve Hamîd müsellem sancağı; Aydın, Saruhan, Menteşe ve Sultanönü müsellem sancağı; Bolu, Kastamonu Çankırı müsellem sancağı; Teke ve Alâiye müsellem sancağı. Rumeli kesiminde yaya ve müsellem sancakları Gelibolu, Çirmen, Tekirdağ bölgelerinde teşkilâtlanmıştı. Bunların başındaki kumandan yaya veya müsellem sancak beyi diye anılıyordu. Bu durumda ocakların bulunduğu normal sancaklarda timarlı sipahilerin başındaki sancak beyi yanında yaya ve müsellem sancak beyleri de mevcuttu. Ancak bu iki başlılık askerî toprak düzeni ve askerî hizmetler bakımından farklılık gösterdiği için görevleri açısından bunların arasında organik bir bağ yoktu. Sancak beyinin altında yer alan çeribaşı ve yayabaşı kendi bölgelerindeki ocakların, yayaların organizasyonunu yapardı. Bunların gelirleri yaya ve müsellem çiftliklerindeki üretimden ve bazı vergilerden sağlanıyordu. Meselâ Saruhan yayaları sancak beyinin hassı, her yaya-müsellem çiftliğinden “Bursa müddüyle buçuk müd buğday, buçuk müd arpa”nın mukātaa yoluyla elde edilen geliriyle yayaların zuhurata bağlı (cürm ü cinâyet, arûsiye, resm-i kîle, yava, kaçgun) vergilerinden oluşuyordu (BA, TD , nr. 139, s. 63). Yaya ve müsellemlerin istenilen zamanda hizmete gitmeleri yöneticilerin sorumluluğu altındaydı. Fakat özellikle geri hizmet kıtaları haline getirildikleri dönemlerde göreve devam hususunda önemli aksamalar meydana geldiği, bunun da çeşitli ekonomik meselelerden kaynaklandığı anlaşılmaktadır. XV. yüzyıla ait bir kanunnâmeye göre hizmete gitmeyen yaya ve müsellemler eğer özür beyan etmez, yerlerine bedel göndermezlerse veya sefer sırasında kaçarlarsa kulakları, sefere geç katılırlarsa sakalları kesilir, iki üç defa gitmeyenler ise idam edilirdi (Kānunnâme-i Âl-i Osmân , s. 48-49). Ancak bu kararların uygulanmadığı XVI. yüzyıla ait kayıtlarda açık şekilde görülür. Nitekim hizmete gelmeyenlerin diğer reâyâ gibi avârızlarının, ağnam, kovan ve bennak vergilerinin devlet adına zaptedilmesine dair bir hüküm çıkarılmıştır (BA, KK , nr. 63, s. 428-429). Kayıtlara göre geri hizmet kıtaları ortaya çıkmadan önce savaşlarda yararlılık gösteren yayaların timarlı sipahi sınıfına geçebildikleri, bazılarının bir ayrıcalık olarak zırh (çukallı, bürüme) taşımakla ödüllendirildikleri anlaşılmaktadır. Bu zırh ayrıcalığı yayalardan çok atlılar için geçerliydi, bununla birlikte yayaların da bir bölümünün zırhlı olarak sefere katıldığı düşünülebilir. Nitekim Yaya Mûsa adlı birinin çukallı olduğu ve sancak taşıdığı kaydedilmektedir (Arıkan, XV. Asırda Yaya ve Müsellem Ocakları , s. 201).
Yaya ve müsellem teşkilâtı özellikle XVI. yüzyılda değişen şartlar dolayısıyla önemini giderek kaybetti ve hizmet alanı başka gruplarca doldurulmaya başlandı. Ellerindeki çiftlikler yüksek miktarlara ulaştığı için bunların daha rasyonel biçimde timara verilmesi yahut doğrudan hazineye aktarılması düşünüldü. Ayrıca hizmetlerde aksamaların önüne geçilemiyordu. 1540 tarihli bir hükümde bu aksaklıklara işaret edilerek Anadolu vilâyetindeki bütün yaya ve müsellemlerin yeniden tahririnin yapılması isteniyordu (Káldy-Nagy, s. 95-103). 1553’te de muhtemelen Nahcıvan seferi sırasında bazı yeni düzenlemelere teşebbüs edildi (Emecen, s. 151). Buna göre hizmete gelmeyen yayaların tasarrufları altındaki yerlerin geliri devlet adına mukātaaya verilecekti. Sonuçta bu tarihten itibaren bazı yaya ve müsellem çiftliklerinin statüleri değişti (mensuh çiftlikler). Bu süreç 1570’lerden itibaren daha da hızlandı. 990 (1582) tarihli bir kararla da Anadolu vilâyetindeki birçok sancakta yaya-müsellem teşkilâtı kaldırıldı; yapılan tahrirlerle çiftlikleri yeniden ölçülüp içindeki yaya ve yamaklar normal reâyâ kaydedildi. Mensuh çiftliklerin de ulûfe bedeli olarak kapıkuluna verilmesi kararlaştırıldı. Böylece bir kısmı emekli yeniçeri ileri gelenleri, bir bölümü de Kaptanpaşa eyaleti için tahsis edildi. Ayn Ali Efendi, XVI. yüzyılın ikinci yarısı için nöbetlisi 6900 kişi, yamakları 26.000 kadar olan bu askerî grubun lağvıyla çiftliklerin timar ve zeâmete verildiğini kaydeder. Kaldırılan yaya ve müsellem sancaklarının beyleri de müteferrika zümresine alındı. Bu çiftlikler az gelirli olduğu gerekçesiyle daha sonra hazine adına iltizama verildi. Muhtemelen Batı Anadolu bölgesindeki büyük çiftliklerin ortaya çıkışında bu uygulamanın önemli bir yeri vardır. Yaya ve müsellem teşkilâtlarının lağvına rağmen bunlar XVII. yüzyılın ortalarına kadar adlarını muhafaza ettiler.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
Âşıkpaşazâde, Târih (Atsız) , s. 117-118.
Neşrî, Cihannümâ (haz. Necdet Öztürk), İstanbul 2008, s. 74, 105.
Anonim Tevârîh-i Âl-i Osman (nşr. F. Giese, haz. Nihat Azamat), İstanbul 1992, s. 61.
Ayn Ali, Kavânîn-i Âl-i Osmân , s. 45-46.
Kānunnâme-i Âl-i Osmân (nşr. Mehmed Ârif, TOEM ilâvesi), İstanbul 1329, s. 48-49.
M. Tayyib Gökbilgin, Rumeli’de Yürükler, Tatarlar ve Evlâd-ı Fâtihân , İstanbul 1957, tür.yer.
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Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2013 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 43. cildinde, 354-356 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.