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Sözlükte “yalnız olmak, tek başına kalmak” anlamındaki yütm kökünden türeyen yetîm kelimesi çeşitli nesnelerin tekliğini ifade eder. Meselâ benzeri zor bulunan ve sedeften tek çıkan iri inci tanesine “dürr-i yetîm”, öncesinde ve sonrasında şiir olmayan tek beyte “beyt-i yetîm” denir. Bu anlamdan hareketle babası ölmüş çocuğa da yetim (çoğulu eytâm, yetâmâ) adı verilir. “Yütm”ün asıl mânasının bir çocuğun babasını kaybetmesi olduğu ve tek başına kalma mânasının buradan geldiği şeklinde ikinci bir görüş de vardır (Lisânü’l-ʿArab , “ytm” md.). Bir hadiste yetimin zayıflığına işaret edilmiştir (İbn Mâce, “Edeb”, 6). Babasını kaybeden küçük büyük herkese (sözlük anlamı bakımından) yetim denilebilirse de fıkıhta yetim henüz bulûğ çağına ermemiş çocuklar hakkında kullanılır. Bir hadiste de bulûğ çağından sonra yetimliğin kalkacağı belirtilmiştir (Ebû Dâvûd, “Veṣâyâ”, 9). Çocuğun nafakasını temin etme, haklarını koruma ve onu yetiştirmede babanın daha çok rolü bulunduğundan yetimlik özellikle babaya bağlanmıştır (Râgıb el-İsfahânî, el-Müfredât , “ytm” md.). Arapça’da annesini kaybeden çocuk için aciyy , hem annesini hem babasını kaybeden çocuk için latîm kelimeleri varsa da gerek konuşma dilinde gerekse yazılı metinlerde yetim bütün bu durumları ifade etmektedir. Günümüzde bazı Arap ülkelerinin mevzuatında yetim, anne ve babasından her ikisini veya birini kaybeden yahut babası veya hem annesi hem babası bilinmeyen çocukları ifade eder (Abdullah b. Nâsır b. Abdullah es-Sedhân, s. 50). Bazı İslâm ülkelerinde ebeveynden birinin kaybolması, çocuğu terketmesi yahut boşanma sonucu ondan uzaklaşması gibi sebeplerle ortaya çıkan hükmî yetimlik de yetim tanımı içerisinde görülmektedir. Babaları ölmüş olan çocuklara bulûğ çağına girdikten sonra da mecazen yetim denilebilir. Nitekim müşrikler Hz. Muhammed’e küçümsemek amacıyla “Ebû Tâlib’in yetimi” derlerdi. Ayrıca evlendirilirken kendisine danışılması gerektiğini bildiren bir hadiste babasını küçük yaşta kaybeden yetişkin kız için “yetîme” lafzı kullanılmıştır (Ebû Dâvûd, “Nikâḥ”, 23, 25). Türkçe’de yetim kelimesi genelde babası ölmüş çocuğu ifade etse de bazı yerlerde Arapça’da olduğu gibi geniş bir kullanıma sahiptir. Sadece annesini veya hem annesini hem babasını kaybeden çocuğa daha çok öksüz denilir.
Câhiliye döneminde kabileler arası savaşlarda ve yıllarca süren kan davalarında ölenler arkalarında çok sayıda yetim bırakıyordu. Arap yarımadasında kızlara, eli silâh tutmayan çocuklara, yaşlılara ve kadınlara genellikle miras hakkı tanınmaz, yetimlere de babalarından kalan mal verilmezdi. Bazı yetim kızlar vasîleri tarafından evlendirilerek mehirlerine el konur, bazan da vasîleri sırf mallarına sahip olmak için onlarla evlenirlerdi. Kur’an’da yirmi iki âyette yetimlerle ilgili meselelere temas edilmiş ve yetimlere karşı iyi davranılması emredilmiştir. Bu husus Allah’a iman ve ibadet yanında anılmış (el-Bakara 2/177; en-Nisâ 4/36), yetimlerin itilip kakılması ve onlara karşı ilgisiz davranılması kınanmış (el-Fecr 89/17; el-Mâûn 107/2), yetimlerin küçümsenip kendilerine kötü muamelede bulunulması yasaklanmıştır (ed-Duhâ 93/9). Müminler muhtaç durumdaki yetimleri doyurmaya, onları malî yönden desteklemeye ve yaşam şartlarını düzeltmeye teşvik edilmiştir (el-Bakara 2/215, 220; en-Nisâ 4/8; el-İnsân 76/8; el-Beled 90/15). Medine döneminde devlet gelirlerinden ganimet ve fey içinde yetimlerin hakkı olduğu bildirilmiş, bu hakkın ödenmesine gelirlerin harcama kalemleri arasında yer verilmiştir (el-Enfâl 8/41; el-Haşr 59/7). Yetimlere adaletle davranılması, özellikle mallarını ele geçirmek amacıyla yetim kızlarla evlenip haksızlık yapılmaması, evlendirilen yetim kızların mehirlerine el konulmaması (en-Nisâ 4/3, 127), yetimlerin mallarının en güzel şekilde korunup yönetilmesi (el-En‘âm 6/152; el-İsrâ 17/34), büyüdüklerinde mallarının geciktirilmeden kendilerine teslim edilmesi ve teslim sırasında şahit bulundurulması hususu (en-Nisâ 4/6) Kur’an’da yetim haklarına dair temel prensiplerdir. Yetim malı yemek büyük günahlardan sayılmış, haksız yere yetim malı yiyenlerin şiddetli azap görecekleri bildirilmiş, yetimin veli ve vasîlerine ancak fakir olmaları durumunda onun malından belli ölçüde faydalanma izni verilmiştir (en-Nisâ 4/2, 6, 10).
Yetimliği bizzat yaşamış olan Hz. Peygamber birçok hadisinde yetimlerin hukuku üzerinde hassasiyetle durmuştur. Resûl-i Ekrem’in, “Allahım! Ben yetimin ve kadının, bu iki zayıf insanın hakkını ihlâl etmekten insanları şiddetle sakındırıyorum” dediği (İbn Mâce, “Edeb”, 6), bir defasında şahadet parmağı ile orta parmağını birleştirerek, “Yetimi koruyup gözetenle cennette böyle yan yana olacağız” buyurduğu nakledilir. Resûlullah ayrıca Allah rızası için yetimin başını okşayan kimseye elinin dokunduğu her saç teli kadar sevap verileceğini bildirmiş (Müsned , V, 250; Ebû Dâvûd, “Edeb”, 121), yetimlere ait malların ticaret yoluyla arttırılmasını istemiştir (Tirmizî, “Zekât”, 15). Öte yandan yetim malı yemenin insanı helâke sürükleyen yedi büyük günahtan biri olduğu belirtilmiş, müminlerin bundan şiddetle kaçınması gerektiği vurgulanmıştır (Buhârî, “Veṣâyâ”, 23). Yetim malının idaresi kişiye ağır bir sorumluluk yüklediğinden, Hz. Peygamber’in bu sorumluluğu taşımaya ehil görmediği Ebû Zerr’e yetim malının idaresini üstlenmemesini tavsiye ettiği nakledilir (Nesâî, “Veṣâyâ”, 10).
Hükümler. Fakihler, yetimleri himaye edip yetiştirmeyi farz-ı kifâye olarak kademeli biçimde toplumun görevleri arasında saymıştır. Bu husus öncelikle mahremi olan yakın akrabaların sorumluluğundadır. Bunların yokluğunda veya sorumluluklarını yerine getirememeleri durumunda sorumluluk diğer müslümanlara geçer. Devlet başkanının, velisi olmayanların velisi olduğu yolundaki genel kurala göre (Tirmizî, “Nikâḥ”, 15; Ebû Dâvûd, “Nikâḥ”, 19; İbn Mâce, “Nikâḥ”, 15) bu vazifenin devlet tarafından veya devletin denetiminde koruyucu ailelerle ya da kurumlarla yerine getirilmesi gerekir. Yönetim boşluğu halinde çocuğun bulunduğu beldedeki müslümanlar sorumlu olur. Anne ve babaları müslüman olsun olmasın yetim çocukların terkedilmemesi ve kötü niyetli kişilerin eline bırakılmaması istenmiştir. Yetimin bakımı ve yetiştirilmesinin gerektirdiği masraflar kendi malından, malı yoksa yakın akrabaları tarafından, onların da gücü yetmezse devletçe yahut belli vakıfların geliriyle karşılanır (ayrıca bk. HİDÂNE ; LAKĪT ).
Fıkıhta kişilerin vücûb ve edâ ehliyeti açısından geliştirilen doktrin aynı zamanda yetimlerin hukukunu da koruyucu bir fonksiyona sahiptir. Bu sebeple yetime miras, vasiyet ve vakıf gibi yollarla intikal eden mallar kendisine verilmeyip, velî, vasî veya hâkim tarafından idare edilir. Hanefî ve Mâlikî hukukçularına göre yetimin temyiz çağından önceki bütün tasarrufları hükümsüzdür. Temyiz çağına girdikten sonra yapacağı sözlü tasarruflar mahiyetlerine göre değişir. Eğer hibe ve sadaka gibi yetimin sırf yararına ise kanunî temsilcilerin icâzetine ihtiyaç duymadan sahih ve nâfiz olur. Eğer tasarruf hibe etme, sadaka veya borç verme şeklinde yetimin sırf zararına ise kanunî temsilcisi icâzet verse de hükümsüzdür. Yetimin alım satım, kiraya verme, kiralama ve şirket kurma gibi hem yarar hem zarar ihtimali bulunan tasarrufları askıdadır; kanunî temsilcisi icâzet verirse geçerli, vermezse geçersiz olur. Hanbelî ve Şâfiî hukukçularına göre henüz bulûğa ermemiş çocuğun temyiz çağından önceki ve sonraki bütün malî tasarrufları hükümsüzdür (bk. VELÂYET ). Yetimin haksız fiilleri sonucu meydana gelen zarar, yetimliğin rüşd ile sona erip edâ ehliyetindeki kısıtlılığın kalkması beklenmeden, varsa onun malından karşılanır; çünkü tazmin sorumluluğu edâ ehliyetine değil vücûb ehliyetine dayanır ve kişi, doğduğu andan itibaren kendisini borçlanmaya elverişli kılan tam vücûb ehliyetine sahiptir. Yetimin bulûğa ermesi ve fikrî olgunluk (rüşd) seviyesine ulaşması halinde malı kendisine teslim edilir ve bundan sonraki tasarrufları geçerli olur. Bulûğ çağına ermeden görülebilecek rüşd emâreleri dikkate alınmadığı gibi yetim bulûğa erdiği halde malını yönetme konusunda yeterli dirayete sahip değilse ve gerekli zihnî gelişmişliği gösteremezse yine malı teslim edilmez. Zira bu gelişme yeteneğe, çevreye, sosyal şartlara ve eğitime göre farklı yaşlarda ortaya çıkabilir. Rüşd hali görülünceye kadar bu mallar veli veya vasînin idaresinde kalmaya devam eder. Ebû Hanîfe’ye göre yetime ait malların veli yahut vasî idaresinde kalma süresinin son sınırı yirmi beş yaştır; bu yaşa gelen kişide rüşd hali görülmese de malları kendisine teslim edilir. Hanefîler’den İmâmeyn ile diğer mezhep hukukçularına göre ise hangi yaşına gelirse gelsin rüşd görülmedikçe sefih durumundaki kişiye malları verilmez. Malların teslimi sırasında şahit bulundurma Hanefîler’e göre mendup, Şâfiî ve Mâlikîler’e göre vâciptir.
Yetim hakkını korumaya yönelik bir başka hukukî tedbir gasp konusunda gündeme gelir. Hanefî mezhebine göre gasbedilen bir malın menfaati -kullanmak veya sahibinin yararlanmasını engellemek suretiyle- tüketilecek olsa kural olarak tazmin edilmez. Ancak zamanla insanlarda yetim malını koruma duyarlılığının azalması ve toplumda meydana gelen diğer olumsuzluklardan dolayı sonraki Hanefî hukukçuları yetim malını bu genel kuraldan istisna etmiş ve malın menfaatinin tazmin edileceği görüşünü benimsemiştir. Hanefî mezhebi esasına göre hazırlanan Mecelle ’de menfaatin tazminine ilişkin 596. madde bu görüş doğrultusunda düzenlenmiştir.
Kurumlar. Babasını kaybetmekle kendisi için çalışıp kazanan ve haklarını koruyan bir hâmiden yoksun kalan yetimin kendi ailesi içinde bakılıp büyütülmesi esastır ve ilk dönemlerden itibaren İslâm toplumlarında yaygın olan uygulama da bu şekildedir. Kabile bağlarının güçlü olduğu ilk dönemlerde yetimlerin bakımı yakın akrabalarına (asabe) verilirdi. Ancak anne babanın her ikisinin de vefat etmesi, annenin ikinci bir evlilik yapması veya aile ortamının elverişsizliği gibi durumlarda yetimlerin bakımını üstlenecek kurumlara ihtiyaç duyulmuştur. İslâm toplumlarında uygulamada yetim mallarının korunmasına özel bir önem verilmiş, insanlar yetimlerle kendi çocukları gibi ilgilenmeye teşvik edilmiş, idarî açıdan kadılar eliyle, malî açıdan vakıflar yoluyla çözümler getirilmiştir. Bilhassa Selçuklular’dan itibaren eytamhâne ve ıslahhâneler kurularak yetimlerin bakımı sağlanmaya çalışılmıştır. Eyyûbîler ve Memlükler döneminde yetimler için özel mekteplerin açıldığı, vakıfların tahsis edildiği bilinmektedir. Osmanlılar’da yetimlerin himayesine yönelik uygulamalar daha da geliştirilmiş, avârız vakıfları fakir yetimler için bir tür sosyal güvence olmuş, dârüleytamlarda yetimlerin ihtiyaçları karşılanmıştır. Yeniçeri birliklerindeki orta sandıkları şehidlerin yetimlerine, esnaf birliklerince kurulan esnaf sandıkları da kendi mensuplarından ölenlerin çocuklarına maddî destek sağlamış, XIX. yüzyılın ortalarından itibaren eytam sandıkları oluşturulmuştur. 1873’te tesis edilen Dârüşşafaka yetimlerin eğitim ve himayesine yönelik bu anlayışın bir ürünüdür. 1917’de kurulan Himâye-i Etfâl Cemiyeti daha sonra Çocuk Esirgeme Kurumu’na dönüştürülmüş, 1981 yılına kadar faaliyetlerini dernek statüsünde sürdürmüş, 1983’te Sosyal Hizmetler ve Çocuk Esirgeme Kurumu teşkil edilmiştir. 2011 yılında gerçekleştirilen yasal düzenlemeyle bu hizmetlerin yeni kurulan Aile ve Sosyal Politikalar Bakanlığı bünyesinde Çocuk Hizmetleri Genel Müdürlüğü tarafından yürütülmesi kararlaştırılmış, küçük çocuklar için açılan bakımevleriyle on üç-on sekiz yaş arasındaki gençlere hizmet veren çocuk yetiştirme yurtları il özel idarelerine bağlanmıştır. Son yıllarda yetimlerle ilgili uluslararası veya bölgesel sempozyumlar düzenlenerek problemlere ortak çözümler bulmaya gayret edilmektedir.
Günümüzde savaş, salgın hastalık, deprem vb. sebeplerle anne babaları ölen milyonlarca yetim bulunmaktadır. Yetimlerin en yoğun olduğu bölgeler Afganistan, Sahrâaltı Afrikası ve Latin Amerika’dır. Bunun dışında kaçırılma veya aileyi terketmekten dolayı fiilen yetim kalan çocuklar da büyük bir sorun teşkil etmektedir. UNICEF tarafından hazırlanan bir rapora göre Güney ve Güneydoğu Asya ülkelerinde çocuk kaçırma olayları yaygındır. Orta ve Doğu Avrupa ülkeleriyle Türkî cumhuriyetlerde fakirlik yüzünden aileleri tarafından resmî kurumların bakımına terkedilen yahut aile içi şiddet ve alkol yüzünden evini terkeden çocuk sayısında artış gözlenmekte, bunların arasında engelli çocuklar önemli bir yekün tutmaktadır (Progress for Children , s. 27, 33, 34-35). Bir başka raporda Balkanlar, Doğu Avrupa ve Orta Asya ülkelerinde aileleri tarafından terkedilen veya anne baba şefkatinden mahrum kalan çocukların sorunlarına değinilmektedir (At Home or in a Home? , s. 2, 5-7, 20, 44-45). Gelişmiş ülkelerde evlilik dışı ilişkilerin ve boşanmaların yaygınlaşması sonucu anne ve babadan birinin gözetimine verilen çocukların sayısında da büyük artış görülmekte, bunlar da yetim gibi alâka ve himayeye muhtaç olarak büyümektedir. Son yıllarda sokak çocukları, çocuk hakları, çocuk istismarı ve çocuk suçları gibi konularda kamuoyunda duyarlılığın artmasına rağmen henüz çözüm için yeterli adımların atıldığı söylenemez.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
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At Home or in a Home? Formal Care and Adoption of Children in Eastern Europe and Central Asia (UNICEF) , (September), Cenevre 2010, s. 2, 5-7, 20, 44-45, ayrıca bk. tür.yer.
İbrahim Kâfi Dönmez, “Yetim”, İA , XIII, 401-403.
Saîd Âşûr, “el-Müʾessesâtü’l-ictimâʿiyye fi’l-ḥaḍâreti’l-ʿArabiyye”, Mevsûʿatü’l-ḥaḍâreti’l-ʿArabiyyeti’l-İslâmiyye , Beyrut 1987, III, 341-345.
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Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2013 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 43. cildinde, 501-503 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.