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YOGA Skip to content Bedensel hareketlerin kontrolü ve meditasyon yardımıyla kurtuluşa erme yolu.
Birtakım ilâhî bilgiler ve yetenekler kazandırarak kişiyi kurtuluşa ulaştırdığına inanılan yoga Hindu, Budist ve Caynist/Jainist öğretilerinin en temel kavram ve tekniklerinden biridir. Hinduizm’de altı ortodoks düşünce/inanç akımından (astika) biri olarak görülen yoga, Budizm ve Jainizm’de daha dar bir kullanım çerçevesinde zihinsel meditasyon/yoğunlaşma için aracı bir metot kabul edilir. Yoga, Ortaçağ’larda İslâm tasavvufundaki bazı uygulamaları, modern zamanlarda popüler birtakım dinî hareketleri etkileyecek kadar güçlü bir kültürün oluşmasına katkıda bulunmuştur. Sanskrit literatüründe yoga yapana yogi /yoginî denilir. Yoga kelimesi “bağlamak, birleştirmek; öküze bukağı vurmak” anlamında Sanskritçe yuj kökünden gelir. Bugün Batı dillerinde meselâ İngilizce’de aynı kök “öküze bukağı takma” anlamında yoke kelimesinde hâlâ yaşamaktadır. Milâttan önce II. yüzyılda yoganın temel kaynağı olan Yoga Sutra ’da ilk defa bu kelime “tanrı ile insanı birbirine bağlamak” anlamında soyut biçimde geçer. Yoga Sutra ’dan önceki literatürde (Upanişadlar, Gita) kelime zihinsel yoğunlaşma ve münzevilere ait bir durum bağlamında kullanılmaktaysa da klasik anlamına Yoga Sutra ile kavuşmuştur.
Bir yanıyla inanç ve felsefî özelliklere (mokşaya, kurtuluşa götüren yol, süreç), diğer yanıyla bedensel egzersizlere (ruhu kontrol için bedeni kontrol etme eylemi) sahip bir sistem olarak yoganın kökeni kesin şekilde bilinmemektedir. Mohenjo-Daro ve Harappa gibi prehistorik Hint kültürüne ait arkeolojik kazılarda bulunan mühür baskılarındaki yoga pozisyonuna benzer şekilde oturan figürlerin Yoga’nın Hindistan’da milâttan önce 3000’lere, henüz Hinduizm’in teşekkül etmediği dönemlere kadar çıktığını düşünen araştırmacılar varsa da bunun aksini ileri süren çok sayıda bilim adamı mevcuttur. Bununla birlikte Sramana adıyla bilinen gezici münzevilerin tecrübe ettiği zihinsel ve ruhsal bazı psikolojik fenomenlerin (tapas) yoganın meydana gelişine kaynaklık ettiği şeklinde genel bir kabul vardır. Muhtemelen Budizm’in ortaya çıkışından (m.ö. VI. yüzyıl civarı) önce Hindistan’da sistemsiz bir yoga icra ediliyordu. Budizm ve Jainizm’in zuhurundan itibaren yogayı aydınlanma sürecinde meditasyon aracı olarak görmesi ve bir sisteme kavuşturması Hinduizm’i de bu doğrultuda etkilemiştir. Fakat günümüzde bilindiği anlamıyla yoga daha çok Hinduizm içerisinde gelişip yayılmıştır.
Hindu yogasının tarihsel gelişiminde milâttan önce II. yüzyıl ile milâttan sonra V. yüzyıl arasındaki süreci kapsayan Maurya ve Gupta dönemleri önemlidir. Patanjali’nin Yoga Sutra ’sı bu evrede yazılmıştır. Aynı döneme ait Bhagat Gita da yogayla ilgili geniş bilgi içerir. Yine aynı devirde Tattvarthasutra adıyla bilinen Jain metni yogayı Jainizm açısından yorumlar. Gupta döneminde ortaya çıkan Budist Yogacara hareketi de yoga kültürünün gelişmesine katkıda bulunmuştur. Kökeni milâttan sonra VI. yüzyıla kadar çıkan, esas gelişimini XII-XV. yüzyıllar arasında tamamlayan Bakti Hindu hareketi yoga felsefesinin Hinduizm’in içerisinde kökleşmesini sağlamıştır. XV. yüzyılda daha çok felsefî bir ekol olarak görülen yoga sistemine, Hatha Yoga adıyla bilinen ve bugün oldukça popüler duruma gelen bedensel hareketlerin kontrolüyle kurtuluşa ulaşma eğilimi dahil olunca modern yoga anlayışı son şeklini almıştır. XX. yüzyılın başından itibaren daha çok Hatha Yoga, Hindu yogasını temsil eder hale gelmiştir. Bugün Hindistan’da ve dünyanın çeşitli ülkelerinde özellikle yaygın olan Hatha Yoga’dır.
Yogayı aydınlanma ve kurtuluş sürecinde zihnin mutlak uyanıklığına katkı yapan zihinsel ve bedensel bir eylem diye yorumlayan Budist ve Jainist yaklaşımlar bir yana, daha sistemli ve popüler hale geldiği Hinduizm içerisinde yoga özellikle düalist bir Hindu felsefesi olan Samkhya ekolü mensuplarınca uygulanmaktadır. Bunun dışındaki Hindu ekollerinde icra edilen yoga daha sistemsiz olup folk yogasının etkisi altında gelişmiş arkaik uygulamaları esas alır. Yoga Sutra ’ya göre yoga pratiği sekiz basamaktan meydana gelir. Her şeyden önce yoga kişinin bedensel, zihinsel, ruhsal faaliyetlerini dengelemeyi, kontrol altına almayı ve kurtuluşa (mokşa) yönlendirmeyi amaçlar. Beden kontrolünden başlayan, ruh ve zihin kontrolüne kadar uzanan sürecin sonucunda “samadhi” denilen bir dinginlik durumuna ulaşılır. Samadhiye eren zihin “prasada” adı verilen mutlak mutluluk halinde kurtuluşa bir adım daha yaklaşır. Bu süreç kişiye doğa üstü yetenekler kazandırır. Kişiyi bu noktaya ulaştıracak sekiz basamaktan ilk ikisi hazırlık basamakları kabul edilen “yama” (öldürmemek, yalan söylemekten kaçınmak, hırsızlık ve zinadan uzak durmak, dünya malına tamah etmemek) ve “niyama”dır (dinin emirlerini yerine getirmek, düzenli ibadet ve kutsal metinleri okuma alışkanlığı kazanmak, bedeni temiz tutmak). Üçüncü sırada bedenin kontrol altına alınmasına yönelik “asana”lar (rahat ve kolay oturuş biçimleri) gelir. Zihnin sükûnete kavuşması ve gizil güçlerin elde edilmesi konusunda faydalı ve etkin bir egzersiz olarak görülen “pranayama” (nefes kontrolü) dördüncü basamaktır. Nefes alıp vermeyi düzenlemenin birey üzerinde hipnoz etkisi yaptığı iddia edilir; bununla birlikte fiziksel bakımdan zayıf kimseler için nefes egzersizlerinin tehlikeli olabileceği ve bundan ötürü pranayamanın gizli yapılması telkin edilir. “Dış dünyanın olumlu veya olumsuz etkilerine karşı hislerin duyarsızlaştırılması süreci/basamağı” diye de tanımlanan “pratyahara” yoga sistemindeki beşinci basamaktır. Aslında bu basamaktaki uygulamalar bireyi şehvet, nefret, öfke, hiddet, korku gibi iç faktörler kadar sıcak, soğuk, kalabalık ve yalnızlık gibi dış faktörlerin yol açtığı etkilere karşı da duyarsızlaştırma amacına yönelik egzersizlerdir. Mantraların da yoğun biçimde kullanıldığı bu basamak aynı zamanda derin düşünceye hazırlık veya başlangıç basamağı kabul edilir. Zihnin belli bir noktaya odaklanması yahut derin düşünmeye giriş eşiği olarak nitelendirilebilecek “dharana” yoga sistemindeki altıncı basamaktır. Bundan sonra “önceki uygulamaların ortaya çıkaracağı zorunlu sonuç” diye tanımlanabilecek olan “dhyana” (zihnin dış dünyanın etkilerinden kurtularak uzun süre belli bir konuya odaklanması) ve son olarak obje-süje ayırımının son bulduğu derin bir tefekkür hali olan “samadhi” gelir. Her yoga öğrencisinin kendi eğilimine en uygun yoga türünü seçmesi telkin edilir. Guru denilen mürşidlerin aslî görevlerinden biri de müride bu konuda yardımcı olmaktır. Yoga çeşitleri şöylece sıralanabilir:
a) Bakti yoga. En kolay yoga türü olup din adamı sınıfına dahil olmayanlar arasında yaygındır. İnsanın âcizliğine ve yüce bir gücün varlığına inanmak bu yoganın temelini oluşturur. Bakti yoga bu yüce güce iman ve adanma yoludur. Upanişadlar’da buna sıkça atıf yapılır ve samadhiye ulaşmanın kesin yollarından biri kabul edilir. Gita ’da ise Brahman’a ulaşmak için karma (amel) ve jnana ile (bilgi) birlikte üçüncü bir yol olarak sunulur. Bakti yolunu benimseyip uygulayanların herkese dostça yaklaşacağı, dünyaya bağlılığının kalmayacağı, her türlü acı ve hazdan uzaklaşacağı ifade edilir. b) Karma yoga. Zihni sadece aslî görevleriyle meşgul etmektir. Bu yoga türü “kriya yoga” olarak da isimlendirilir. Bazan da “iyilik, şefkat, temizlik ve aç gözlülükten uzak durma hali” diye tanımlanır. Gita ’da eylemden tamamen vazgeçmenin imkânsızlığına ve bunun yararlı olmadığına vurgu yapılır. Dolayısıyla birey açısından önemli olan eyleme yönelme arzusunun ortadan kalkması ve sonrasında elde edilecek yararı düşünmemesidir. c) Raja yoga. Bu yoga türüne jnana, samkhya, dhyana, patanjala, astanga yoga gibi farklı isimler de verilir. Nitekim Gita ’nın on sekizinci bölümünde buna dhyana yoga ve buddhi yoga denilmiştir. Karma ve baktinin aksine bu yoga türü herkesin uygulayabileceği bir yoga olmayıp bunu ancak yüksek kabiliyet ve anlayış sahibi kimselerin icra edilebileceği belirtilir. Raja yoga acı ve ıstırabın sebebi olan cehaletin ortadan kaldırılması süreciyle başlar. Çoğu araştırmacıya göre yoga kelimesi tek başına kullanıldığı zaman genelde bu yoga türü kastedilir. d) Hatha yoga. Raja yogaya ulaşmak için merdiven işlevi görür. Hatha kelimesinin ilk hecesi “güneş”, ikinci hecesi “ay” anlamındadır. Bu sebeple hatha yoga metaforik olarak güneş ile ayın, reel olarak da insan ile tanrının birleşmesidir. Hatha yoganın, fiziksel hareketler ve nefes egzersizleri sayesinde kişinin olgunlaşma ve aydınlanma sürecini kolaylaştırdığı ileri sürülür. e) Laya yoga. Laya, “nefes alışveriş sürecinin kontrol altına alınmasıyla zihni sükûnete ulaştırma” anlamına gelir. Bu ya zihnin sessizleşmesi ya da nefesi kontrol etmekle gerçekleşir. Hatha ve laya yogada amaç bireyi bir üst aşama kabul edilen raja yogaya ulaştırmaktır. f) Mantra yoga. Bakti yogaya benzeyen bu yoga türü sıradan insanlar (avam) içindir; burada sâlikin mantra denen sırlı kelimeleri sürekli tekrar etmesi telkin edilir. Bu uygulamanın zihinsel dalgınlıkları ve gelgitleri azaltarak zihnin sükûnete erişmesine yardımcı olacağı, ancak dış dünyaya karşı ilgisizlik durumu (vairagya) sağlanmadan sadece kelimeleri tekrar etmenin ruhsal gelişime bir yarar sağlamayacağı ileri sürülür. Zira vairagya ve abhyasa olmaksızın yogadan bahsetmek mümkün değildir.
Tasavvufta âdâba dair bazı uygulamaların yoga sisteminden alındığı şeklinde iddialar ve karşı iddialar mevcuttur. Özellikle zikir esnasında nefes alıp verme teknikleri, çileye giren dervişlerin uygulamaları, seyrüsülûkteki bazı usuller ve dervişlerin münzevi yaşamı bu benzerliklerin en önemlilerindendir. İslâmî kaynaklarda yogayla ilgili ilk ayrıntılı bilgi Bîrûnî’nin Arapça’ya Tercemetü Kitâbi Batencel fi’l-ḫalâṣ mine’l-irtibâk başlığıyla tercüme ettiği Yoga Sutra metninden elde edilir. İslâm sûfî çevrelerinde en çok tanınan ve bazı uygulamalara doğrudan etki eden metin ise 1210’da Bengal’de Ḥavżü’l-ḥayât adıyla Arapça’ya çevrilen ve Sanskritçe Amrtakunda (âb-ı hayât havuzu) olarak bilinen yogayla ilgili eserdir. Bu kitap Osmanlı Türkçesi’ne ve Farsça’ya da çevrilmiştir (bk. DİA , III, 57). Bununla birlikte Şerefeddin Mânerî (XIV. yüzyıl), Burhâneddîn-i Garîb (XIV. yüzyıl), Ahmed-i Sirhindî (XVII. yüzyıl) ve Muhammed Muhyiddin (XVIII. yüzyıl) gibi Hint kökenli sûfîler bu benzerlikleri reddetmiştir. Öte yandan Muhammed Gavs (XVI. yüzyıl), Îsâ Cündüllah (XVII. yüzyıl) gibi Hint Şüttârî tarikatı şeyhleri tasavvuf ve yoga arasındaki ilişkileri normal karşılayarak bazı sûfî uygulamalarının yogadan alındığını kabul etmiştir.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
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Yan Y. Dhyansky, “The Indus Valley Origin of a Yoga Practice”, Artibus Asiae , XLVIII/1-2, Ascona 1987, s. 89-108.
W. Ernst, “Situating Sufism and Yoga”, JRAS , 3. series: XV/1 (2005), s. 15-43.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2013 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 43. cildinde, 558-559 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.