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ZEÂMET Skip to content Osmanlı timar sisteminde 20.000 akçeden fazla dirlik tasarrufuna verilen ad.
Osmanlı askerî teşkilâtı terminolojisinde genel olarak askerî hizmette bulunanlara verilen, 20.000 ile 100.000 akçe arasındaki dirlikleri ifade eder. Bu dirlikleri tasarruf eden kimselere zaîm denilir. Osmanlı kanunnâmelerinde şöyle tarif edilir: “Zeâmet şuna derler ki kâmil yirmi bin akçelik üzere veyahut daha ziyade ile bir kimseye berat olmuş ola. Yirmi binden bir akçe eksik olsa ona zeâmet denilmez, timar denilir. Zira zeâmet ekseri haddi yüz bin ve ekalli kâmil yirmi bindir” (Sofyalı Ali Çavuş Kanunnâmesi , s. 79). Ayrıca Dîvân-ı Hümâyun’da görev yapan bürokratlara ve savaşlarda büyük yararlılık gösterenlere tahsis edildiği eklenir. Zeâmetin idarî bir mıntıka anlamı da vardır (meselâ Trabzon bölgesinde “Zeâmet-i Kürtün” adlı idarî birim). Bu şekliyle, “timar sistemi içinde zeâmet sahibine tâbi olan timarlı sipahilerinin topluca bulunduğu askerî ve idarî bölge” demektir. Zeâmet kelimesine II. Murad dönemine ait bugüne ulaşan defterlerde rastlanmaz. Bu defterlerde 20.000 akçe ile 100.000 akçe arasındaki birçok dirlik has veya timar olarak adlandırılmıştır. Ancak zaîm tabiri kullanılır. Timurhisar ve Pirlepe bölgelerinde iki zaîmin on dört cebelü ile sefere gittiği kayıtlıdır (BA, MAD , nr. 303, s. 20; BA, MAD , nr. 525, s. 2). Bu durum muhtemelen timar-zeâmet ayırımının henüz tam gerçekleşmediğine işaret eder. Fâtih Sultan Mehmed döneminden itibaren tahrir defterlerinde zeâmet terimi sıkça geçer (BA, TD , nr. 15, s. 25-28). II. Bayezid dönemine ait ilk timar rûznâmçe defterinde de zeâmet tevcihleri görülür (BA, MAD , nr. 17893, s. 5, 20).
Fâtih döneminde zeâmetlerin çok olmadığı ve belirli bölgelerin genellikle bir zeâmeti bulunduğu dikkati çeker. Eyâlet-i Rûm’da zeâmet tevcih edilirken zeâmet tabirinden sonra çoğunlukla Zile, Yıldız, Gelmugad, Karahisarıbehramşah gibi bir yerin ismi zikredilmiştir (BA, TD , nr. 15, s. 25-35). Bu da zeâmetin idarî bir ünite için kullanılmasıyla ilgili olmalıdır. Zaîmlerin en önemli görevi askerî harekâtlara iştirak etmektir. Zeâmet sahipleri sefere 5000 akçede bir cebelü götürmekle mükelleftir. Resmî kayıtlarda zaîmlerin mutlaka sefere gitmeleri gerektiğine özellikle vurgu yapılır (BA , Mühimme Zeyli , nr. III, s. 129). Sefere katılmayanların zeâmetleri geri alınıp başkalarına verilir. Lutfi Paşa mahlûl zeâmetlerin kudretli savaşçılara verilmesini, vezirlerin bu dirlikleri kendi adamlarına tahsis etmemelerini özellikle belirtir. Vezirlerin kendi adamlarının timarla kanaat etmelerini, eğer verilirse de bunun çok az olması gerektiğini yazar (Âsafnâme , s. 65-66). Fakat XVI. yüzyılın sonlarından itibaren vezirlerin kendi yakın adamlarına zeâmet dağıtma temayülü giderek artmıştır. Budin’de mahlûl timar ve zeâmetlerin ellerinde tahsis emri bulunmayan askerlere verilmeyip sancak beyleri tarafından kendi haslarına eklenmesi gibi uygulamaların yasaklandığına dair kayıtlara rastlanır (BA , Mühimme Zeyli , nr. III, s. 126). XVI. yüzyılın ikinci yarısında Rumeli kadılarına yazılan bir hükümde beylerbeyi ve sancak beyi hasları ile zeâmetlerin iltizama verilmemesinin emredilmesi, zeâmet sahipleri arasında kendilerine tahsis edilen vergileri toplama işini aracılara devretme alışkanlığının yaygınlaştığı anlamına gelmektedir. Ayrıca padişah haslarından da zeâmet tahsisi yasaklanmıştır (BA , Mühimme Zeyli , nr. III, s. 117, 305). Zeâmet sahipleri hizmetlerini aksatmamak şartıyla dirliklerini muhafaza edebilirlerdi ve sebepsiz yere zeâmetleri alınıp başkasına verilmezdi. Bir zaîm vefat ettiğinde zeâmetinin bir kısmı oğluna intikal ederdi. Zaîmin birden fazla çocuğu varsa genellikle ikisine dirlik verilir, üçüncüsüne tevcîhat yapılmazdı. Büyük oğula ikincisine göre daha fazla dirlik ayrılırdı. Zaîmlerin çocuklarına verilecek dirlik miktarı zeâmet sahibinin evinde veya seferde iken vefatına göre farklı miktarlarda olurdu. Sefer görevini aksatmanın yanı sıra zaîmlerin başka işlerle uğraşması halinde de zeâmetleri ellerinden alınırdı (BA , Mühimme Zeyli , nr. III, s. 126).
Zeâmet tahsisi için gereken berat merkezde hazırlanırdı. Zeâmet tevcihini belirten tezkire için ilgili kalemde binde yirmi beş akçe harç alınırdı. Beratın yenilenmesi durumunda bu rakamın yarısı ödenirdi (Münşeat Mecmuası , Konya Mevlânâ Müzesi Ktp., nr. 5278, vr. 8a ). 20.000 akçe ve üzerinde geliri olan kılıç zeâmetlerin yanı sıra, bir timar sahibi hisse toplayarak 20.000 akçeyi geçen bir dirlik elde ederse zeâmet grubuna girerdi. Gösterdiği yararlılık karşısında dirlik tasarruf eden kişinin timarına zam yapılarak zeâmet sahibi olmasına müsaade edilirdi (BA, KK , nr. 209, s. 34). Ancak ek tahsisatla meydana gelen bu tür zeâmetler, icmallü veya kılıç zeâmet yani kadrolaşmış, muayyen hale gelmiş bir tahsis statüsünde olmazdı. Bu zeâmet gerektiğinde başkalarına dağıtılabilirdi. Defterde kayıtlı muayyen zeâmetlerin çekirdek kısmına (kılıç) dokunulmaz ve bu kısım parçalanmazdı. Bu kılıç kısım 20.000 akçelik ana çekirdeği oluşturuyordu. Buna eklenen hisseler gerekli durumlarda başkalarının timar ve zeâmetlerine aktarılabilirdi. Söz konusu hisseler tahrir defterlerinde “an-zeâmet” şeklinde kaydedilmiştir. Bu ifade aynı zamanda zeâmet sahibinin zeâmetinin kılıç kısmının başka yerde bulunduğunu gösterir.
XVI. yüzyılın sonlarında Rumeli eyaletinde 914, Anadolu eyaletinde 195, Cezâyir-i Bahr-i Sefîd eyaletinde 126, Karaman eyaletinde 116, eyâlet-i Rûm’da 109, Trabzon ve Batum eyaletinde 49, Çıldır eyaletinde 97, Erzurum eyaletinde 122, Van eyaletinde 199, Rakka eyaletinde 38, Diyarbekir eyaletinde 42, Trablusşam eyaletinde 63 zeâmet vardı. Aynı yüzyıl sonlarında imparatorlukta toplam 35.934 timara karşılık 2375 zeâmet mevcuttu. 38.259 adet kılıcın da yaklaşık yüzde altısı zeâmet kategorisindeydi. Ancak zeâmet gelir yekünü timarlara göre çok daha fazla olduğundan tasarruf edilen dirliklerin toplam gelirlerinde bu oran muhtemelen birkaç misline ulaşıyordu. XVII. yüzyılda Evliya Çelebi imparatorlukta 78.675 timara karşılık 4877 zeâmet bulunduğunu yazar.
Bir zaîmin sancak beyi olması için 80.000 akçelik bir zeâmet tasarruf etmesi gerekirdi. Bunlar sancak beyliğine geldikleri takdirde 200.000 akçelik bir tahsisatla tayin edilirdi. Sekbanbaşı veya yeniçeri kethüdâlığı görevinden sancak beyliğine yükselmek mümkündü; eğer bu vazifelerden bir uygunsuzluk dolayısıyla el çektirilmişse bu gibilere zeâmetin çekirdek kısmı (20.000 akçe) kalırdı. Müteferrikalarda zeâmetin sınırı 100.000, kâtiplerde 50.000, çavuşlarda 40.000 idi. Lutfi Paşa kanuna göre bu rakamların aşılmaması gerektiğini söyler (Âsafnâme , s. 77), ancak XVI. asrın sonlarından itibaren bunların hayli aşıldığına dair örnekler vardır. Zeâmetin üst sınırı 99.999 akçe olarak tesbit edilmişti; buna rağmen özellikle merkez görevlilerinin tasarruf ettiği gedikli (kadrolu/muayyen) zeâmetler bu rakamın üstüne çıkmaktaydı. Nitekim Fâtih Kanunnâmesi’nde zaîm ve timar sahiplerinin padişahın elini öpmesinin gerekli olmadığından bahsedilirken 150.000 akçe tasarruf eden müteferrikanın el öpebileceği kayıtlıdır. Kanunnâmedeki bu kayıt zeâmet sınırının değişebileceğini ortaya koymaktadır. Özellikle XVI. yüzyılın sonlarından itibaren merkez görevlilerinin 100-150.000 akçelik zeâmet tasarruf ettikleri dikkati çeker (BA , Timar-Ruznamçe Defteri , nr. 118, s. 229-230; nr. 286, s. 332-333; nr. 308, s. 99-100, 109-110; nr. 330, s. 300-301; nr. 335, s. 370-372; nr. 422, s. 283). Hatta 300.000 akçelik zeâmet tasarruf eden bürokratlar da vardı (Dávid, s. 51). Bunun sebeplerinden biri, merkez görevlilerinin mahlûl timarları üzerlerine geçirip sonradan kendi adamlarına ferağ etmeleri olmalıdır. Kâtiplerin tasarruf ettikleri zeâmetlere zaman zaman bazı sınırlamalar getirilmiştir. Meselâ Defterhâne-i Âmire kâtiplerinin fazla zeâmet tasarruf etmelerini önlemek için XVII. yüzyılın başında zeâmetlerinin 40.000 akçeyi geçmemesi yönünde ferman çıkarılmıştır (BA , Timar-Ruznamçe Defteri , nr. 262, s. 36-37). Fakat daha sonra 40.000 akçenin üzerinde zeâmet tasarruf eden birçok kâtibe rastlanması bu emre uyulmadığını göstermektedir.
Genelde bürokratlara (hâcegân) mahsus bir zeâmet tahsisi yoktu, bu sebeple emeklilik veya ölüm halinde göreve gelen kişiye timar tasarruf etmediği durumlarda yerine geçtiği kişinin zeâmeti tahsis edilirdi (BA , Timar-Ruznamçe Defteri , nr. 46, s. 405-406; BA, KK , nr. 210, s. 266). Yine hâcegânlara ayrılmış muayyen bölgeler olmadığından zeâmetleri Rumeli veya Anadolu eyaletlerinin değişik sancaklarına dağılmış haldeydi. Bunların zeâmetleri serbest timar statüsündeydi. Serbest zeâmet ve timarlarda bazı durumlarda kanuna uymayanlar saklanabiliyor, bu da onları talep eden subaşıların görevlerini yapamamalarına yol açabiliyordu. Böyle hallerde kanun kaçaklarını saklayan timar ve zeâmet sahiplerinin dirlikleri ellerinden alınabiliyordu (BA , Mühimme Zeyli , nr. III, s. 76; nr. VI, s. 54, 58). XVI. yüzyılda hâcegânlar 40-50.000 akçe civarında zeâmet tasarruf ederken (BA, KK , nr. 210, s. 266; BA, MD , nr. II, hk. 1646) XVII. yüzyılda bu rakam çok yükselmiştir. Silâhdar ve sipahilere de ulûfelerine bedel zeâmet verildiği görülmüştür. Genellikle, devlet hazinesinden günde 30 akçe ulûfe alanlara 30.000, 60 akçe alanlara ise 60.000 akçelik zeâmet tahsis edilirdi. Çaşnigîrler umumiyetle ulûfe alırlardı, kendilerine zeâmet verildiği takdirde bu 60.000 akçelik olurdu (Münşeat Mecmuası , Konya Mevlânâ Müzesi Ktp., nr. 5278, vr. 7a , 33b ).
Zaîmler itibar sahibi kabul edilir, vezirler onları ayakta karşılardı. Zaîmler kendi bölgelerinde timarlıların da denetimini yapar, onların başında sefere giderlerdi. Savaş dışında bulundukları bölgede kadının denetiminde asayişi sağlamaya çalışırlar, ayrıca vergi toplarlardı. Sefer esnasında içlerinden biri seçilerek alay beyi unvanıyla bölgenin timarlı sipahilerini kumanda ederdi. Yörük beyleri, müsellem ve piyade beyleriyle Kavala kaptanı, voynuk beyi zaîm pâyeli olur, bunlar emri altındaki grupların başında yer alırdı. Zaîmlerden hizmetleri karşılığı müteferrika ve dergâh-ı âlî çavuşluğu görevine getirilenler de mevcuttur. Sancak beyi ve beylerbeyi oğullarına ilgili kanun gereği zeâmet tevcih edilirdi. Rumeli veya Anadolu beylerbeyinin bir oğlu varsa 40.000 akçe, iki oğlu varsa büyüğüne 25.000, küçüğüne 20.000 akçe zeâmet verilirdi. Diğer beylerbeyilerin oğulları ise 35.000 akçelik zeâmet tasarruf ederdi. Beylerbeyinin birden fazla oğlu varsa büyüğüne 20.000 akçelik zeâmet, küçüğüne 15.000 akçelik timar tevcih edilirdi. Sancak beylerinin oğullarına verilecek dirlik miktarı ise tasarruf ettiği has miktarına göre olurdu. Tanzimat’ın ardından timar sisteminin kaldırılmasına rağmen imparatorluğun sonuna kadar hak sahiplerine ve belli görevlere mahsus dirliklere zeâmet bedeli verilmeye devam edilmiştir (BA, A.MKT.MHM , nr. 395/64; BA, BEO , nr. 3791/284299; 4336/325160; BA , ŞD, nr. 440/28). Başbakanlık Osmanlı Arşivi’nde “Timar ve Zeâmet Tevcih Defterleri” adıyla 923-1079 (1517-1668) dönemini kapsayan müstakil bir tasnif oluşturulmuştur.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
Hicrî 835 Tarihli Sûret-i Defter-i Sancak-i Arvanid (nşr. Halil İnalcık), Ankara 1954, neşredenin girişi, s. XXIII-XXIV.
Fâtih Sultan Mehmed, Kānûnnâme-i Âl-i Osman (nşr. Abdülkadir Özcan), İstanbul 2003.
Lutfi Paşa, Âsafnâme (nşr. Mübahat S. Kütükoğlu, Prof. Dr. Bekir Kütükoğlu’na Armağan içinde), İstanbul 1991, s. 65-66, 77.
Ayn Ali, Kavânîn-i Âl-i Osmân , s. 42.
Avni Ömer Efendi, Kānûn-ı Osmânî Mefhûm-i Defter-i Hâkānî (nşr. İsmail Hakkı Uzunçarşılı, TTK Belleten , XV/59 [1951] içinde), s. 389-393.
Hezârfen Hüseyin Efendi, Telhîsü’l-beyân fî Kavânîn-i Âl-i Osmân (haz. Sevim İlgürel), Ankara 1998, s. 139-140.
Münşeât Mecmuası , Konya Mevlânâ Müzesi İhtisas Ktp., nr. 5278, vr. 7a -8a , 33b .
N. Beldiceanu, XIV. Yüzyıldan XVI. Yüzyıla Osmanlı Devleti’nde Tımar (trc. Mehmet Ali Kılıçbay), Ankara 1985, tür.yer.
Sofyalı Ali Çavuş Kanunnâmesi (haz. Midhat Sertoğlu), İstanbul 1992, s. 21, 58, 79.
Ahmet Akgündüz, Osmanlı Kanunnâmeleri ve Hukukî Tahlilleri , İstanbul 1994, VII, tür.yer.
G. Dávid, “Assigning a Ze‘amet in the 16th Century: Revenue-Limits and Office-Holding”, Armağan: Festschrift für Andreas Tietze (ed. I. Baldauf v.dğr.), Praha 1994, s. 47-57.
Osman Karataş, 3 Numaralı Mühimme Zeyli: Rebiülevvel-Cemâziyelevvel 984 / Haziran-Ağustos 1576 (s. 176-351) (yüksek lisans tezi, 2010), MÜ Türkiyat Araştırmaları Enstitüsü.
M. Tayyib Gökbilgin, “Kanûnî Sultan Süleyman’ın Timar ve Zeâmet Tevcihi ile İlgili Fermanları”, TD , sy. 22 (1967), s. 35-48.
Ömer Lütfi Barkan, “Timar”, İA , XII/1, s. 286-333.
Halil Sahillioğlu, “Zeâmet”, a.e. , XIII, 477-479.
Suraiya Faroqhi, “Ziʿāmet”, EI2 (İng.) , XI, 495.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2013 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 44. cildinde, 162-164 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.