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ZİHİN Skip to content İnsanın idrak gücü.
Sözlükte “anlama, kavrama, akılda tutma, anlayış, kavrayış” gibi mânalara gelen zihin (zihn ) (Lisânü’l-ʿArab , “ẕhn” md.) eski kaynaklarda genellikle “idrak yeteneği veya gücü” diye tanımlanır. Cürcânî’nin verdiği iki ayrı tanımdan ilki “dış ve iç duyular dahil nefsin bilgileri kazanma yeteneğine sahip gücü”, ikincisi “bilgilerin idrak edilmesini sağlayan eksiksiz yetenek” şeklindedir (et-Taʿrîfât , “eẕ-Ẕihn” md.). İlk tanım zihnin hem duyu hem akıl idrakiyle ilgili olduğu düşüncesini yansıtmaktadır. Ebü’l-Bekā da zihnin mutlak anlamda insan nefsi, nefsin idrak güçlerinden biri yahut tamamı için kullanılabildiğini, dolayısıyla genelde “idrak gücü” anlamına geldiğini belirtmektedir. Aynı âlim Fahreddin er-Râzî’ye dayandırdığı bir tanımda zihnin nefse bilgileri edinme imkânını sağlayan yetenek olduğunu, bu yeteneğin iyi işlemesine “fıtnat”, hızlı işlemesine “zekâ” denildiğini aktarır. Yine Ebü’l-Bekā, zihnin akıl ve nefisle eş anlamlı kullanılabildiğini vurgulamakla birlikte aralarındaki ince anlam farklılıklarına değinmektedir. Buna göre nefis genel olarak bedeni yöneten (mutasarrıfe), akıl idrak eden (müdrike) güçtür; zihin ise idrak yeteneği olması yönünden bu adı almıştır (el-Külliyyât , s. 717, 979-980). Tehânevî benzeri tanımlara biraz daha açıklık getirmeye çalışır. Buna göre zihnin yaygın tanımlarından biri, “nefsin kavram ve hükümlere ait görüşleri (bilgileri) edinme yeteneği” şeklindedir. Bu tanım açık biçimde klasik epistemolojideki bilginin kavram bilgisi (tasavvur) ve hüküm bilgisi (tasdik) diye ikiye ayrılması fikrine dayanır. Bir başka tanıma göre zihin iyiyi kötüden, doğruyu yanlıştan ayırt etmeyi sağlayan nefse ait güçtür. Bu tanımda doğru ile yanlışın bilgisini sağlayan nazarî akıl, iyi ile kötünün bilgisini sağlayan amelî akıl ayırımı esas alınmıştır. “Kendisine nakşolunmuş duyulur ve akledilir sûretlerin hepsini idrak eden güç” biçimindeki bir diğer tanımda ise -Cürcânî’nin ilk tanımında olduğu gibi- zihnin kapsamına nefsin bütün idrak güçleri dahil edilmiş, zihnin duyu, hayal ve akıl formlarını idrak eden güç olduğu vurgulanmıştır (Keşşâf , I, 516-517). Tehânevî’nin aktardığı tanımlardan ilk ikisi, esas itibariyle İbn Sînâ’nın “nefsin tanımlar yapma ve görüşler edinme yeteneği” şeklindeki tanımı etrafında (eş-Şifâʾ el-Manṭıḳ [5] , s. 259) oluşturulmuştur.
Müslüman filozoflar insanın zihnî/entelektüel donanımını onu yetkinliğe, dolayısıyla gerçek anlamda mutluluğa ulaştıracak en önemli imkân olarak değerlendirmiştir. İslâm düşüncesinde bu tür konular üzerinde yoğunlaşan Fârâbî’ye göre insanın mutluluk idealine ulaşması iyiyi kötüden ayırt etmesi, böylece duygu ve davranışlarının iyilik istikametinde yönlendirilmesiyle mümkündür. İyiyi kötüden ayıracak olan ise insana doğuştan verilen zihin gücüdür. Buradaki “güç” kavramı zihnin güçlü olması, yani asıl işlevini görmesini engelleyecek aptallık türünden herhangi bir zaafı taşımaması anlamını da içerir. İyi duygu ve davranışların sürekliliği insanda ahlâk denilen yapının bu yönde gelişmesini sağlarken zihin gücünün sağlıklı işleyecek biçimde geliştirilmesi bu yapıyı bütünler. Her şeyin erdemi yetkinlik ve iyi nitelik kazanmasına bağlı olduğuna göre insana özgü erdemi ancak iyi ahlâkla zihin gücü birlikte meydana getirebilir. Böylece Fârâbî ahlâkî gelişimle zihinsel gelişimi erdemli ve mutlu bir hayatın şartı saymıştır (Risâletü’t-Tenbîh , s. 184-189).
Fârâbî, entelektüel faaliyetin insan için anlamı ve önemi yanında, doğrudan zihin felsefesiyle epistemolojiyi ilişki içine sokan meseleler üzerinde de durur; bu çerçevede özellikle tümel kavramlara ulaşma işlevini inceler. Buna göre kavramlar iki düzeyde tasavvur edilir. İlk düzeyde duyulur nesnelere ait kavramlar oluşturulur. “İlk akledilir” denilen bu kavramlar duyulur nesnelere ait olmakla birlikte zihinde bulunur. Bunlar duyulur nesnelerin cinsi veya türü olan soyut kavramlardır. İkinci düzeyde ise ilk akledilirlere ait olan ve “ikinci akledilir” denilen kavramlar tasavvur olunur. Soyutluk düzeyindeki bu kavramların ilkinden farkı duyulur nesnelerin değil ilk akledilirlerin kavramları olmasıdır. Meselâ “insan” kavramı tek tek duyulur nesneler olarak insan türünü anlatırken insanın başka aklî kavramlarla tanımı artık zihnin dışındaki duyulur nesnelere ait olmayıp sırf zihinde meydana gelen bir kavramdır. Zihnin iç işleyişinin yasalarıyla ilgili olan mantık dışındaki bilimlerin ilk konuları esas itibariyle hâricî nesnelerin akledilirleri olan kavramlardır. Fizikçi kendi sahasına ait soyut kavramlara duyulur nesnelerden hareketle ulaşırken matematikçi, nicelik türlerini kendi zihninde duyulur ve işaret edilebilir yönlerinden tamamen soyutladıktan sonra konu edinir. Metafizikçi ise zaman, mekân, nicelik, nitelik gibi türlere ait yüksek cinslerin nitelemediği varlığı, yani kategorilerin dışındaki şeyleri inceler (Kitâbü’l-Ḥurûf , s. 64-69). Fârâbî’ye göre bilgi ve bilimde soyut kavramların tasavvuru yahut tanımının yanında hüküm bilgisine ulaşmak da zihnin temel işlevidir. Zihnin hüküm oluşturma işlevi kıyasların formuyla yönlendirilir. Kıyaslar özel yöntemlerine göre burhan, cedel, hatâbe, mugâlata ve şiir adıyla sınıflara ayrılır; zihne “beş sanat” denilen bu hükümlerle özel biçimde yön verilir. Zihni doğru ve kesin hükümlere yönlendiren kıyaslar burhan adını alır. Esasen mantık ilminin asıl amacı burhana dayalı bilgiler elde etmektir (el-Elfâẓü’l-müstaʿmele , s. 96-99). Felsefede Fârâbî’nin izinden giden İbn Sînâ zihnî gelişimin öğrenim ayağı üzerinde yeniden durmuş, öğrenimin zihnî karakterini özellikle vurgulamıştır. Filozofa göre zihnî kavramının öğrenimi niteleyişi fikrî, sezgisel (hadsî) veya anlamaya dayalı (fehmî) olandan daha geneldir. Çünkü düşünme öğrenim sürecinin sadece problem çözme yönüyle ilgilidir. Sezgiye dayalı öğrenimde problem çözme çabasının yerini zihnin âniden sonuca götüren bir aydınlanışı alır. Anlamada ise sonuç, herhangi bir problem çözme çabası veya âni aydınlanma söz konusu olmadan bilgi sadece öğretmeni dinlemekle kavranır. Oysa zihnî kavramı bunların hepsini içine alacak genelliktedir (eş-Şifâʾ el-Manṭıḳ [5] , s. 59).
İslâm zihin felsefesinde epistemolojik meseleler kadar ontolojik meseleler de araştırılmıştır. Sık sık zihin yerine kullanılan nefsin gayri cismanî bir cevher olarak varlığı meselesi bir tarafa bırakılacak olursa bilgi ve kavramların zihinde özel bir varlık kazanıp kazanmadığı zihin felsefesi tartışmalarının odağında yer almıştır. İbn Sînâ bu meseleyi derli toplu ortaya koyan filozoflardandır. Buna göre her şeyin kendine özgü bir hakikati vardır. Bir bakıma bu hakikat onun özel varlığıdır. Üçgeni o üçgen kılan, beyazlığı o beyazlık yapan bu hakikat onların mahiyetidir. Mahiyet bir şeyin dış dünyadaki hakikatinden başkadır. Hakikat ya dış dünyadadır ya zihinlerdedir ya da mutlak anlamıyla her ikisini birden içerir. Bu hakikat bir şeyin hakikatidir ve öbür şeyin hakikatinden başka olmakla kendine mahsustur. Bu durumda “şey” bir mevcudu belirtir ve bu mevcut ya dış dünyada veya vehim ve akıldadır. Bir şey zihinde bulunduğu halde dış dünyada var olmayabilir, buna göre zihinde yok olandan anlamlı biçimde söz edilemez. Çünkü ancak zihinde varlık kazanmış bir şey bilgi ve haber konusu edilebilir. Mutlak anlamda yok olanın zihinde hiçbir şekilde sûreti mevcut bulunmadığı için ona işaret etmek imkânsızdır. Bu sebeple İbn Sînâ’ya göre yokluk bir şey değildir; mutlak yok olandan ancak olumsuzlayıcı anlamda söz edilebilir. Çünkü yokluğun olumsuzlanması zihinde bir biçimde kavranabilir. Buna karşılık yalnızca zihinde varlığı olan anlamlardan söz etmek, haber vermek mümkündür. Zira hakkında haber verilen şey dış dünyada mevcut olmasa bile bu haberin dış dünyaya bir nisbeti bulunacaktır. Meselâ, “Kıyamet kopacak” cümlesinde “kıyamet” ile “kopacak” kelimelerinin anlamı zihnen bilinmektedir; ayrıca “kopacak” fiili zihinde yine zihindeki kıyamet tasavvuruna anlamlı biçimde yüklem yapılabilmektedir. Buradaki anlam dış dünyada vuku bulacağı haber verilen, ancak henüz vuku bulmamış, dolayısıyla var olmayan bir şeyle ilgilidir. Şu halde zihinde mevcut olan kavram ve bilgilerle onların dış dünyadaki varlıkları ayrı ayrı şeylerdir (eş-Şifâʾ el-İlâhiyyât [1] , s. 31-34).
Bu meselenin giderek olgunlaşan ifadeleri daha sonraki felsefeleşmiş kelâm kitaplarında incelenmiştir. Meselâ Adudüddin el-Îcî, bu tür soyut konulardaki önemiyle tanınan Kitâbü’l-Mevâḳıf ’ta (I, 262-263) zihnî varlık kavramını müstakil bir başlık altında inceleyip tartışmıştır. Îcî’ye göre meselâ ateşin aydınlatma, ısıtma gibi etkilerinden çıkarılabilen dış dünyadaki varlığı konusunda bir tartışma bulunmamaktadır. Tartışma, ateşin bu etkilerinin fiilen gerçekleşmesiyle ilgili bulunmayan bir varlığının olup olmadığı etrafındadır. Bu tarz bir varlık literatürde “zihnî (zıllî, gayr asîl) varlık” şeklinde anılmaktadır. Zihindeki bu varlık dış dünyadaki varlıkların mahiyetinden başka bir şey değildir. İhtilâf dış dünyadaki varlığın bir mahiyetinin olup olmamasıyla, bu mahiyetin zihinde bir form olarak özel bir varlığının bulunup bulunmamasıyla ilgilidir. Zihnî varlığı kabul eden filozofların bu konudaki delilleri, esas itibariyle dış dünyada -iki çelişiğin bir araya gelmesi gibi- varlığı imkânsız olan şeyler hakkında zihnin hüküm verebilmesi, küllî kavramların mantıksal bir gerçekliğe tekabül etmesi ve zihnin gerçekliğe tekabül eden önermeler oluşturabilme yeteneğine sahip bulunması fikrine dayandırılır. Eğer zihin kendi işleyişi içinde belirli tasavvur işlemlerinde bulunabiliyor ve onlar hakkında anlamlı ve doğru hükümler verebiliyorsa söz konusu kavram ve önermelerin sabit bir gerçekliğinin bulunması gerekir. Eğer bu gerçeklikler dış dünyadaki varlıklarından bağımsız biçimde kavranabiliyorsa onların zihnin soyut alanına özgü bir varlığının olduğu kabul edilmelidir.
Îcî filozofların bu delillerine yapılan itirazları şu şekilde ortaya koymaktadır: Filozofların, hem dış dünyadaki varlığını hem de zihinde tasavvurunu imkânsız saydıkları mutlak yokluk hakkında genel imkân kavramı bakımından “imkânsızdır” türünden hükümler vermeleri bir çelişkidir. Çünkü hakkında “bilinemez” veya “haber verilemez” şeklinde doğru hüküm verilen mutlak yokluğun böylece bir hükme konu edildiği ortadadır; dolayısıyla bu şekilde mutlak yokluğun bir gerçekliğe (sübût) sahip bulunduğu ileri sürülmüş olmaktadır. Zihinde tasavvur edilen şeyin zihin dışındaki varlıktan bağımsız olduğu yönünde filozoflarca savunulan fikre yöneltilen bir itiraz da Fahreddin er-Râzî’ye nisbet edilmektedir. Buna göre tasavvur edilen her şey, zihnin dışında ya Eflâtuncu idealar (Îcî’ye göre Allah’ın bilgilerinin sûretleri) anlamında veya filozofların faal akıl dedikleri metafizik güçteki sûretler anlamında görünmez varlığa sahiptir. Dolayısıyla zihinde kavranan şeyler esasen zihnin dışında metafizik varlıkları olan bilgi sûretlerinin zihnî birer karşılığından ibarettir. Ancak mahiyetleri, dış dünyada varlığı bulunan birer hüviyet olarak kabul etmeleri mümkün olmayan filozofların bu iddiayı haklı bulmaları söz konusu olamazdı. Filozoflar mahiyeti teşkil eden küllî kavramların zihin dışında varlığını kesinlikle kabul etmeyip bunların küllîlik niteliğinde sabit gerçeklikler olduğunu savunurlar, yani zihnin dışında somut olarak var olan fertlerin ontolojik gerçekliğine mukabil küllîler de zihinde sabit olan kavramsal gerçekliklerdir. Dolayısıyla küllînin sadece zihnin bir kurgusu olduğu, sabit gerçekliğinin bulunmadığı ileri sürülemez. Filozoflara göre zihnin dışındaki fertler tek tek fiilen böyle bir müştereklik oluşturamayacağına göre küllîlik niteliği zihinde var olan bir “şey”e ait olmalıdır. Îcî’ye göre bu düşünce de itiraza açıktır; çünkü küllîlik niteliği varlık ve gerçeklik belirtici (sübûtî) değil aslında olumsuzlayıcı (selbî) bir niteliktir. Gerçekte, “Şu küllî bir kavramdır” demek küllînin ne olmadığını söylemekten ibarettir. Bu sebeple Îcî’nin tesbitlerine göre kelâmcıların çoğunluğu zihnî varlığı kabul etmemektedir.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
Tehânevî, Keşşâf , I, 516-517.
Fârâbî, Risâletü’t-Tenbîh ʿalâ sebîli’s-saʿâde (nşr. Sahbân Halîfât), Amman 1987, s. 184-189.
a.mlf., el-Elfâẓü’l-müstaʿmele fi’l-manṭıḳ (nşr. Muhsin Mehdî), Beyrut 1968, s. 96-99.
a.mlf., Kitâbü’l-Ḥurûf (nşr. Muhsin Mehdî), Beyrut 1990, s. 64-69.
İbn Sînâ, eş-Şifâʾ el-Manṭıḳ (5) , s. 59, 259.
a.mlf., eş-Şifâʾ el-İlâhiyyât (1) , s. 31-34.
Adudüddin el-Îcî, Kitâbü’l-Mevâḳıf (nşr. Abdurrahman Umeyre), Beyrut 1997, I, 258-263.
Ebü’l-Bekā, el-Külliyyât , s. 717, 979-980.
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