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DELHİ SULTANLIĞI Skip to content DELHİ SULTANLIĞI Hindistan’da Delhi merkez olmak üzere kurulan ve çoğu Türk asıllı hânedanlar tarafından idare edilen sultanlık (1206-1526).
Müellif: Naimur Rahman Farooqi
Gūrî Sultanı Muizzüddin Muhammed b. Sâm tarafından XII. yüzyılın son çeyreğinde kurulmuştur. Ancak bağımsız bir sultanlık haline gelişi, Türk kumandan Kutbüddin Aybeg’in Muizzüddin’i 1206’da öldürüp tahta geçmesinden sonra olmuştur. Sultanlığın gerçek anlamda kurucusu ise Kutbüddin Aybeg’in damadı ve halefi Şemseddin İltutmış’tır (İletmiş [1210-1236]). İltutmış, Kutbüddin Aybeg’in ölümünden sonra taht iddiasında bulunan Tâceddin Yıldız ve Nâsırüddin Kabâce’yi ortadan kaldırarak tahta oturdu ve Bihâr, Ranthambhor, Mandor, Lahor, Mültan, Bengal, Bilsan (Bhilsa) ve Uccain’i zaptederek yerini sağlamlaştırdı. Ayrıca Celâleddin Hârizmşah’ın yardım isteğini geri çevirerek Moğol tehdidini de önledi. İltutmış 1229’da Abbâsî Halifesi Müstansır-Billâh’tan menşur ve hil‘at aldı, bu da onun bağımsız bir sultan olarak meşruiyetini kuvvetlendirdi. Daha sonra ülkenin uzak topraklarının merkeze bağlılığını güçlendirmek için iktâ sistemini uygulamaya başladı; düzenli bir ordu kurarak adına para bastırdı.
İltutmış’ın 1236’da ölümünden sonra sultanlık otuz yıl kadar süren siyasî kargaşa ve karışıklık dönemi yaşadı. Arka arkaya beş Delhi sultanı öldürüldü veya tahttan indirildi. Sultanlık 1266’da Gıyâseddin Balaban’ın tahta geçmesiyle istikrara kavuştu. Gıyâseddin Balaban’ın akıllı yönetimi ve isyancılara karşı sert tutumu kısa zamanda düzeni sağladı. Balaban’dan sonra torunu Keykubad tahta geçti (1287). Ancak Keykubad yönetimde dedesi kadar başarılı olamadı. Bu arada sağlığı da bozulunca sultanlıkta işler yine kötüye gitmeye başladı. Nihayet 1290’da Emîr Celâleddin Fîrûz Şah Halacî bir darbe ile tahtı ele geçirdi ve Keykubad’ı öldürttü. Böylece Delhi Sultanlığı’nda Halacî hânedanı dönemi başladı.
İslâm kaynaklarındaki bilgilerin aksine Halacîler de Türk asıllı bir hânedandı. Onların idarede Afgan unsurunu ön plana çıkarmalarının sebebi, kendi yönetimlerini güçlendirmek için Afgan beylerinin destek ve bağlılıklarını kazanmaktı. Halacîler döneminde de Delhi Sultanlığı’nda karışıklıklar devam etti. Celâleddin Fîrûz Şah çok geçmeden yeğeni ve damadı olan Alâeddin Muhammed tarafından öldürüldü. Böylece 1296’da tahta sahip olan Alâeddin, beş yıl süren başarılı bir askerî harekâttan sonra Gucerât, Ranthambhor, Cithor, Mândû, Sivana ve Jalor’u topraklarına kattı. Aynı şekilde Güney Hindistan’da Devagiri (Deogiri), Telangana, Dvarsamudra ve Madura gibi vilâyetler Delhi sultanının üstünlüğünü kabul ederek vergiye bağlandılar. Sultan Alâeddin kendi saltanatı döneminde oldukça başarılı olmuştur. Vergi sistemini düzenlemiş, ülke ekonomisini istikrara kavuşturmuş ve Moğol tehdidini tamamıyla önlemiştir.
Alâeddin’in 1316’da ölümünden sonra kısa süren bir kargaşa dönemi yaşandı. Önde gelen kumandanlardan Melik Kâfûr iktidara sahip olarak Alâeddin’in büyük oğullarını hapsetti ve henüz bir çocuk olan Şehâbeddin’i tahta oturttu. Ancak çok geçmeden Melik Kâfûr, Alâeddin’in üçüncü oğlu Mübârek Halacî’ye bağlı saray muhafızları tarafından öldürüldü ve Mübârek Halacî sultan ilân edildi (1316-1320). Mübârek babasının sert idare tarzını değiştirdi; tekrar istikrarı sağladı ve bu arada “Halîfetullah” unvanını aldı (bu unvanı alan ve kullanan tek Delhi sultanıdır). Fakat Mübârek de bir müddet sonra yine bir saray darbesiyle öldürüldü. Onu öldürtenler arasında bulunan eski Hindu mühtedi Hüsrev Han, Nâsırüddin Hüsrev Şah unvanıyla tahta geçti. Ancak eski sultana karşı tutumu ve Hindu asıllı olması huzursuzluklara sebep oldu. Türk kumandan Melik Gazi Tuğluk Hüsrev’e karşı bir isyan başlattı ve onu öldürterek Gıyâseddin Tuğluk unvanıyla kendisini sultan ilân etti (1320-1325). Böylece Delhi Sultanlığı’nda Tuğluklular dönemi başladı.
Gıyâseddin Tuğluk, bir yandan vergileri azaltırken öte yandan Hindu toprak sahiplerinin imtiyazlarını arttırarak onların bağlılığını güçlendirdi. Bu arada Bengal’de Telangana, Jajnagar ve Leknevtî’yi zaptederek topraklarına kattı. Fakat 1325’te Bengal’den dönerken esrarlı bir şekilde öldü. Bazı tarihçilerin, yerine geçen oğlu Muhammed Tuğluk’un bunda parmağı olduğunu söylemelerine rağmen son araştırmalar bu iddiayı doğrulamamaktadır. Muhammed Tuğluk’un (1325-1351) uzun saltanatı oldukça yoğun geçmiştir. Muhammed, öncelikle merkezî bir idarî yapı oluşturarak en uzak eyaletleri bile doğrudan kontrol etmek istemiş, fakat bu husus birçok idarî güçlüğe yol açmıştı. Muhtemelen bu yüzden bir müddet sonra Devagiri’yi (daha sonra Devletâbâd) ikinci idarî merkez yaptı ve Delhi’den idareciler gönderdi (1327). Fakat bütün bu tedbirler sonuç vermedi. Delhi Sultanlığı’nın Güney Hindistan’daki otoritesi gittikçe zayıflayınca Madura, Vicayanagar ve Behmeni gibi krallıklar bağımsızlıklarını ilân ettiler. Muhammed Tuğluk’un Horasan’a ve kuzeyde Karachil’e yaptığı seferlerle bazı iktisadî tedbirleri de beklenen sonucu vermedi. Bununla birlikte Muhammed Tuğluk aydın, müsamahakâr ve ilme değer veren bir sultandı. Sıradan müslümanlara ve Hindu görevlilere destek vererek kabiliyetli olanları önemli görevlere getirdi. Hindular’a değer veriyor, âlimleriyle sohbetlerde bulunuyor, hatta onların festivallerine bile katılıyordu. Aynı durum Hindistan’daki diğer dinler için de söz konusuydu. Muhammed Tuğluk, İbn Teymiyye’nin talebelerinden olan Abdülaziz Erdebîlî’yi de sarayında ağırlamıştır.
Muhammed Tuğluk’un halefi Fîrûz Şah Tuğluk’un (1351-1388) saltanatı boyunca Delhi Sultanlığı’nda istikrar ve insanî değerlere önem veren bir idare anlayışı hâkim oldu. Suçlulara işkence yasaklanmış, ulemâya bazı imtiyazlar tanınmıştı. Ayrıca yeterli ürün alamayan çiftçilerin vergileri azaltıldı ve bu arada İslâmî olmayan yirmi sekiz çeşit vergi kaldırıldı. Evlenecek fakir gençler için bir “hayrathâne” ile ücretsiz hizmet veren bir “sıhhathâne” kuruldu. Aynı şekilde işsizlere iş bulmak için bir teşkilât faaliyete geçirildi. Çağdaşı olan kaynaklar Fîrûz’u barış sever bir sultan olarak zikretmekle birlikte onun Bengal’e, Jajnagar’a, Nagarkot’a ve Tatta’ya seferler düzenlediği ve Etâve’deki isyanı sert bir şekilde bastırdığı bilinmektedir.
Fîrûz Şah’ın ölümünden sonra sultanlıkta yine bir taht kavgası ve kargaşalık dönemi başladı. 1398’de Timur’un Delhi’yi talan etmesi bu kargaşayı iyice arttırdı. Bu arada Jaunpûr (1394), Mâlvâ (1401) ve Gucerât (1407) valileri bağımsızlıklarını ilân ettiler. Tahtın kısa aralıklarla el değiştirdiği bu karışıklar içerisinde son Tuğluk Sultanı Nâsırüddin Mahmud’un ölümünden (1413) sonra Delhi, Mültan Valisi Seyyid Hızır Han tarafından zaptedildi ve böylece Delhi Sultanlığı’nda Seyyidler hânedanı dönemi başladı.
Seyyid Hızır Han (1414-1421) Sultan Muhammed Tuğluk tarafından Mültan valiliğine tayin edilmişti. Timur’un Hindistan seferi sırasında ona destek verince Timur kendisine dokunmamıştı. Ancak Seyyidler zamanında da ortalık bir türlü sükûnete kavuşmadı. Arka arkaya gelen dört Seyyid sultanı Seyyid Hızır Han, Mübârek Şah, Muhammed Şah ve Alâeddin Şah, civardaki valilerle ve kabilelerle sürekli otorite savaşı içinde bulundular. Bu yüzden Seyyid sülâlesinin Delhi Sultanlığı tarihinde önemli bir yeri olduğu söylenemez. Bu dönemde Delhi gittikçe artan bir tehditle karşı karşıya kalınca Alâeddin 1447’de Delhi’den ayrılıp Bedâûn’u başşehir yapmaya karar verdi ve oraya yerleşti. Delhi’de de veziri Hamîd Han’ı bıraktı. Ancak Hamîd Han, Sirhind Valisi Behlûl-i Lûdî’yi davet ederek Delhi’yi işgal etmesini istedi. Behlûl-i Lûdî Delhi’yi zaptedince Sultan Alâeddin tahttan resmen çekildi, böylece Lûdîler hânedanı devri başladı (1451).
Behlûl-i Lûdî (1451-1489), Fîrûz Şah Tuğluk zamanında Hindistan’a göç eden Afgan asıllı bir aileye mensuptur. Tuğluklular’a olan hizmetlerinden dolayı önce Sirhind valiliğine tayin edildi, daha sonra Lahor ve Dipalpûr onun yönetimine bırakıldı. Bu arada kendisine “hân-ı hânân” unvanı da verilmişti. Behlûl-i Lûdî, saltanatı sırasında Afganlar’ın genel karakteri olan mutlakiyetçi bir yönetim şekli uygulamadı; daha çok katılımcı bir tarz geliştirerek Afganlı kabilelerin desteğini kazandı. Bu sayede Orta ve Doğu Hindistan bölgelerindeki isyankâr kabilelere hâkimiyetini kabul ettirdi. Düzenlediği seferler neticesinde 1482’de Jaunpûr’u zaptettikten sonra Mîvât ve Gevâliyâr’ı da kendisine bağladı. Böylece Delhi Sultanlığı’nın üstünlüğü tekrar bütün Hindistan’da kabul edilmiş ve sultanlık eski itibarını kazanmıştı.
Behlûl’ün oğlu İskender-i Lûdî (1489-1517) babasının yolundan giderek sultanlığın sınırlarını genişletti. Yeni hâkimiyet sağlanan Jaunpûr, Bayana Tirhut, Dholpûr, Gvalior, Narvar ve Chanderi gibi bölgelerin daha iyi yönetilebilmesi için sultanlığın merkezi Delhi’den Agra’ya taşındı (1506). Çağdaş tarihler, mutaassıp bir müslüman olan İskender’in gayri müslimlere karşı müsamahakâr olmadığından söz ederler. İskender’den sonra tahta geçen İbrâhîm-i Lûdî ise (1517-1526) maiyeti altında bulunan beylere karşı sert davranışları ile onların tepkisini çekti. Kardeşlerine ve bazı kumandanlarına yaptığı kötü muameleler neticesinde İbrâhim’e karşı bir isyan başladı. Pencap Valisi Devlet Han ile İbrâhim’in amcası Âlem Han o sırada Kâbil’de oturan Bâbür’den yardım talep ederek kendilerini İbrâhîm-i Lûdî’den kurtarmasını istediler. Bunun üzerine Bâbür Delhi’ye yürüdü ve ünlü Pânîpet Savaşı’nda İbrâhîm-i Lûdî’yi mağlûp ederek öldürttü (21 Nisan 1526). Böylece Hindistan’da Delhi Sultanlığı dönemi sona ermiş ve Bâbürlü Hint-Türk İmparatorluğu’nun hâkimiyeti başlamıştır.
DELHİ SULTANLARI MEMLÛK SULTANLAR Kutbüddin Aybeg 602 (1206) Ârâm Şah 607 (1210) Şemseddin İltutmış 607 (1211) Rükneddin I. Fîrûz Şah 633 (1236) Celâletüddin Râziye Begüm 634 (1236) Muizzüddin Behram Şah 637 (1240) Alâeddin Mesud Şah 639 (1242) I. Nâsırüddin Mahmud Şah 644 (1246) Gıyâseddin Balban (Balaban) 664 (1266) Muizzüddin Keykubad 686 (1287) Şemseddin Keyûmers 689 (1290) HALACÎLER Celâleddin II. Fîrûz Şah 689 (1290) Rükneddin I. İbrâhim Şah 695 (1296) Alâeddin I. Muhammed Şah 695 (1296) Şehâbeddin Ömer Şah 715 (1316) Kutbüddin Mübarek Şah 716-720 (1316-1320) TUĞLUKLULAR I. Gıyâseddin Tuğluk Şah 720 (1320) Gıyâseddin II. Muhammed Şah 725 (1325) Mahmud Şah 752 (1351) III. Fîrûz Şah 752 (1351) II. Gıyâseddin Tuğluk Şah 790 (1388) Ebû Bekir Şah 791 (1389) Nâsırüddin III. Muhammed Şah 792 (1390) Alâeddin I. İskender Şah 795 (1393) II. Nâsırüddin Mahmud Şah (birinci saltanatı) 795 (1393) Nusret Şah (II. Mahmud Şah ile iktidar mücadelesi) 797 (1395) II. Mahmud Şah (ikinci saltanatı) 801 (1399) Devlet Han Lûdî 816-817 (1413-1414) SEYYİDLER Hızır Han 817 (1414) Muizzüddin II. Mübârek Şah 824 (1421) IV. Muhammed Şah 838 (1435) Alâeddin Âlem Şah 849-855 (1446-1451) LÛDÎLER Behlûl-i Lûdî 855 (1451) Nizâm Han II. İskender 894 (1489) II. İbrâhim 923-932 (1517-1526)
Delhi Sultanlığı Hindistan’ın sosyal, ekonomik ve siyasî hayatında büyük değişikliklere sebep olmuştur. Her şeyden önce Hindistan’daki çok sayıda devletçik zamanla ortadan kalkmış ve merkezî idare gelişmiştir. Bu arada şehirler büyümüş ve Hindu geleneklerinin aksine kozmopolit bir yapı oluşmuştur. Delhi sultanları ayrıca Hindistan’ın dış dünyaya açılmasına önem vermişler, böylece ticarî faaliyetler milletlerarası bir hüviyet kazanmıştır.
Delhi Sultanlığı’nda merkezî idare genel olarak İran modeli üzerine kurulmuştur. Ancak İslâmî geleneklerle eski Hint ve Moğol gelenekleri de bu model içerisinde yer almaktadır. Sultan idarenin başı olup sivil, askerî ve hukukî alanlarda geniş yetkilere sahipti. Sultana, başlarında vezirin bulunduğu bir meclis tarafından idarî işlerde yardım edilirdi. Vezir vergi ve gelirleri toplamakla, masrafları ve devlet muhasebesini kontrol etmekle yükümlüydü. Ârız-ı memâlik (Savunma bakanı), kādî-i memâlik (Adalet bakanı), berîd-i memâlik (İstihbarat bakanı) ve debîr-i memâlik (Maliye bakanı) meclisin diğer üyeleri arasından seçilirdi. Sarayın işlerine bakan vekîl-i der ile törenlerden sorumlu emîr-i hâcib veya bârbeg de (barbey) geniş yetkilere sahipti.
Delhi Sultanlığı’nda eyalet ve vilâyetlerin yönetimine dair bilgiler az ve karışıktır. Genel olarak eyaletler, vali veya mukta‘ adı verilen bir görevlinin idaresi altındaydı. Valiler idarî ve malî işlerden sorumlu olduğu gibi sınırlı bir orduya da sahiptiler. Fakat dinî ve hukukî meselelerde yetkileri yoktu.
Delhi Sultanlığı’nda devletin resmî dili Farsça idi. Zamanla bu dil ile yerlilerin dili Hintçe’nin karışımından Ordu dili de denilen Urduca ortaya çıkmıştır. Delhi Sultanlığı’nın aslî unsuru olan müslüman Türkler Moğol tehdidi yüzünden Hindistan’da, dolayısıyla yoğun bir Hindu atmosferinde yaşadıkları için Sünnîliğe sıkı sıkıya bağlı kalmışlardır. Hindular’a karşı Hanefî fıkhına göre davranmışlar ve onlardan cizye almışlardır. Hindular’ın mevcut tapınakları muhafaza edilmiş, fakat yeni mâbed inşasına müsaade edilmemiştir. Delhi Sultanlığı döneminde ilim ve kültüre de önem verilmiştir. Zira bu devirde Moğollar’dan kaçan çok sayıda âlim Hindistan’a yerleşmişti. Bunlar arasında Muizzüddin Çiştî, Nizâmeddin Evliyâ, Hoca Kutbüddin Bahtiyâr ve Şeyh Ferîdüddin Mesud sayılabilir. Böylece XIII ve XIV. yüzyıllarda Delhi zamanın en büyük ilim ve kültür merkezi haline gelmişti. Doğu’nun en büyük şairi sayılan Emîr Hüsrev-i Dihlevî’yi de bu arada kaydetmek gerekir.
Delhi Sultanlığı dönemi Hindistan’daki İslâm mimarisi açısından da önemlidir. Bu devrin en mühim eserleri Delhi’de bulunmaktadır. Delhi sultanlarının adıyla anılan Tuğlukâbâd, Fîrûzâbâd gibi Delhi şehirleri de bunu gösterir. Eski Delhi’de Hindistan’daki Türk İslâm hâkimiyetinin muhteşem anıtı, 1119’da Kutbüddin Aybeg tarafından inşası başlatılıp 1130’da İltutmış zamanında tamamlanan Kutub Minâr’dır.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
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Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 1994 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 9. cildinde, 130-132 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.