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2/2 Müellif: AHMET ÖZEL Bölüme Git
Sosyal Hayattaki Yeri. Tarihçilerle müslüman ve yabancı seyyahlar Emeviyye Camii’nin inşası, özellikleri ve geçirdiği onarımlar yanında Şam’ın sosyal,…
Şam’da Emevîler devrinde yapılmış olan Emeviyye Camii (el-Câmiu’l-Ümevî, Câmiu Benî Ümeyye) mimari özellikleri, süslemelerindeki ihtişam ve haiz olduğu mânevî değerleriyle bütün İslâm âleminde müstesna bir yere sahiptir. Tarih boyunca birçok müellif tarafından söz konusu edilen cami, inşasından sonraki bütün devirlerde methiyelere mazhar olmuş ve görenleri büyülemiştir. Müslümanların, dinî ve sosyal hayatta önemli roller üstlenmiş ve kutsî değerler atfedilmiş camilerinin en eskisi olup milâttan önce I. yüzyıla ait bir Roma mâbediyle onun harabeleri yanında bulunan Theodosios dönemine (379-395) ait Aziz Yohannes (Hz. Yahyâ) Kilisesi’nin yerine inşa edilmiştir. Önce, Dımaşk’ın fethinin ardından (14/635) Romalılar’ın baştanrısı Jüpiter’in adını taşıyan mâbedin çevresi sütunlu, yüksek duvarlı büyük salonu Ebû Ubeyde b. Cerrâh’ın gözetiminde camiye çevrilmiş, daha sonra bu caminin ihtiyacı karşılayamaması üzerine Emevî Halifesi Velîd b. Abdülmelik (705-715) tarafından mâbed harabesinin batı tarafında bulunan kilise veya bir iddiaya göre sadece aradaki duvar yıktırılarak (DİA , VII, 48, 49) bütün bu sahayı kaplayacak olan bugünkü büyük caminin inşası başlatılmıştır. Temeli 86 (705) veya 87 (706) yılında atılan esas cami bölümü 96’da (714) tamamlanmış ve inşaatta halifenin isteği üzerine Bizans imparatorunun İstanbul’dan gönderdiği ustalar çalışmıştır. Caminin yapımında, dikdörtgen planlı olan Roma mâbedinin kıble istikametine rastlayan uzun duvarlarından güneydeki ile uçlarında bulunan iki burçtan faydalanılmış ve inşaat bu duvarın kuzeyinde geliştirilip kuleler de minare kaidesi olarak kullanılmıştır.
Yapımını takip eden asırlar içinde birçok yangına ve tabii tahribata mâruz kalan bina çeşitli onarım ve değişiklikler geçirmiş, fakat buna rağmen mimari hususiyetlerini bir ölçüde koruyabilmiş, özellikle de mozaiklerindeki ihtişamı bugüne kadar sürdürebilmiştir. Yapılan onarım ve değişikliklerin en önemlilerinden ilkini, 461’de (1069) meydana gelen büyük bir yangın sebebiyle 475 (1082-83) yılında Selçuklu Sultanı Melikşah yaptırmıştır; bu onarımda ağırlığın Kubbetü’n-nesr adıyla tanınan kubbe ile birlikte kemerler ve sütunlar üzerinde yoğunlaştırıldığı görülmektedir. İkinci önemli onarım ise Osmanlı Sultanı II. Abdülhamid devrinde 1894’teki büyük yangından sonra gerçekleştirilmiş (1896-1902) ve içerideki sütun sıraları ile bunlarla ilgisi bulunan mimari bölümler ve çatı İstanbul’dan gönderilen ustalar tarafından yeniden yapılmıştır.
136 × 37 m. boyutlarında bir ibadet mekânı ile 122,5 × 50 m. boyutlarında bir avludan oluşan dikdörtgen planlı caminin ana ibadet mekânı, kıble duvarına paralel uzanan üç enine nef ile (sahn) bunları ortadan kesen daha geniş bir dikey neften meydana gelmekte ve nefler arasında mermer sütunlar üzerinde yükselen iki kat halinde düzenlenmiş kemerler bulunmaktadır. İbadet mekânının merkezinde, enine neflerle dikey nefin kesiştiği kısmın ortasında, kare kesitli dört pâye tarafından taşınan Kubbetü’n-nesr yer almakta ve kubbeye geçişin tromplarla sağlandığı görülmektedir; ibadet mekânının diğer tarafları 1894 yangınından sonra yenilenen ahşap bir çatıyla örtülüdür. İç kısımda Şâfiî mihrabı denilen ana mihraptan başka ikisi sağda, biri solda üç mihrap daha bulunmakta ve bunlardan sağdakilere Hanefî ve Hanbelî mihrapları, soldakine ise sahâbe veya Mâlikî mihrabı denilmektedir. Sahâbe mihrabı ile Kubbetü’n-nesr arasına rastlayan yerde Hz. Yahyâ’nın türbesi bulunmaktadır. Ana ibadet mekânı, dikey neften üç kemerli büyük bir kapıyla avluya açılmaktadır.
Ortasında bir şadırvanın yer aldığı avlu arkadan yirmi dört, yanlardan dokuzar kemerli revaklarla çevrilmiştir. Avluda ayrıca biri Kubbetü’l-hazne (beytü’l-mâl), diğeri Kubbetü Zeynelâbidîn adını taşıyan iki kubbeli küçük bina mevcuttur ve bunlardan batıdaki Kubbetü’l-hazne’de camiye ait vakıf gelirlerinin muhafaza edildiği bilinmektedir.
Caminin üç minaresi ve dört ana kapısı vardır. el-Mi’zenetü’l-garbiyye denilen ve batıdaki Roma burcu üzerine yapılmış olan minare ötekilerden daha gösterişlidir; 893 (1488) yılında Memlük Sultanı Kayıtbay tarafından tâdil ettirilmiştir. Diğer minarelerden doğudaki burç üzerinde yükselen Mi’zenetü Îsâ, kuzey revakının üzerinde yükselen ise Mi’zenetü’l-arûs adını taşımaktadır. Caminin kapılarından Bâbü Berîd batıdan, Bâbü Ceyrûn (Bâbü’s-sâat, Bâbü’l-lebbâdîn, Bâbü’n-Nevfere) doğudan ve Bâbü’l-ferâdis (Bâbü’l-imâre) kuzeyden avluya, Bâbü’z-ziyâde ise (Bâbü’l-Kavâfîr) kıble duvarından iç mekâna açılmaktadır. Bunlardan başka kuzeyde Kellâse Medresesi’ne açılan bir kapı daha vardır.
Emeviyye Camii, enine gelişen uzun nefli ve avlulu cami tipinin ilk örneklerinden biri olarak cami mimarisine uzun süre etkide bulunmuş ve bu tip cami planı Anadolu dahil İslâm dünyasının pek çok yerinde asırlarca uygulanmıştır (geniş bilgi için bk. DİA , VII, 59 vd.). Bu caminin bitkisel ve geometrik motiflerle şehir ve bina tasvirlerinden meydana gelen fevkalâde zengin mozaik süslemeleri de sanat tarihi bakımından büyük bir önem taşımaktadır. Caminin bir diğer özelliği de İslâm âlemindeki ilk umumi helâların burada yapılmış olmasıdır.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
K. A. C. Creswell, Early Muslim Architecture, Umayyads, Early Abbasides and Tulunids, Part I – Umayyads , Oxford 1932, s. 2.
a.mlf., A Short Account of Early Muslim Architecture , Harmondsworth 1958, s. 44-63.
a.mlf., el-Âs̱ârü’l-İslâmiyyetü’l-ûlâ (trc. Abdülhâdî Able), Dımaşk 1404/1984, s. 69-115.
Abdülkādir er-Reyhâvî, el-ʿİmâretü’l-ʿArabiyyetü’l-İslâmiyye: Ḫaṣâʾiṣühâ ve âs̱âruhâ fî Sûriyye , Dımaşk 1979, s. 45.
Architecture of the Islamic World (ed. G. Michell), London 1984, s. 232.
M. Mutî‘ el-Hâfız, el-Câmiʿu’l-Ümevî bi-Dımaşḳ , Dımaşk-Beyrut 1405/1985.
Suâd Mâhir Muhammed, el-ʿİmâretü’l-İslâmiyye ʿalâ merri’l-ʿuṣûr , Cidde 1405/1985, I, 213-216.
Afîf el-Behnesî, el-Câmiʿu’l-Ümevî el-kebîr , Dımaşk 1988.
Vicdân Ali b. Nâyif, Silsiletü’t-taʿrîf bi’l-fenni’l-İslâmî: el-Ümeviyyûn el-ʿAbbasiyyûn el-Endelüsiyyûn , Amman 1988, I, 33-45.
Ali et-Tantâvî, el-Câmiʿu’l-Ümevî fî Dımaşḳ , Cidde 1410/1990.
J. Sauvaget, el-Âs̱ârü’t-târîḫiyye fî Dımaşḳ (trc. Ekrem Hasan el-Ulebî), Dımaşk 1412/1991, s. 25-56.
Ahmet Önkal – Nebi Bozkurt, “Cami”, DİA , VII, 48, 49.
Semavi Eyice, “Cami”, a.e. , VII, 59 vd.
Maddenin bu bölümü TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 1995 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 11. cildinde, 108-109 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.
Sosyal Hayattaki Yeri. Tarihçilerle müslüman ve yabancı seyyahlar Emeviyye Camii’nin inşası, özellikleri ve geçirdiği onarımlar yanında Şam’ın sosyal, siyasal, ilmî ve dinî hayatındaki yeri hakkında da çeşitli bilgiler vermişlerdir. Velîd b. Abdülmelik ilk yapılan camiyi genişletmek istediğinde Roma mâbedinin yanındaki kiliseyi hıristiyanlardan kendilerini razı etmek suretiyle almış ve bir rivayete göre karşılığında daha büyük bir kilise, başka bir rivayete göre ise dört kilise vermiştir. Ancak hıristiyanların daha sonra Ömer b. Abdülazîz devrinde (717-720) kiliseyi geri istedikleri ve halifenin ancak Gota’daki kiliseleri de vererek onları razı ettiği bildirilmektedir (İbn Şeddâd, s. 50-56; İbn Manzûr, I, 260-262, 268). Caminin yapımı için, her birinde 14.000 veya 28.000 dinar bulunan 400 sandık altın harcandığı kaydedilmekte (İbn Şeddâd, s. 65; İbn Manzûr, I, 266; İbn Kesîr, IX, 148), buna göre binanın 5.600.000 veya 11.200.000 dinara mal olduğu anlaşılmaktadır.
Caminin gerek bakım ve onarımını yapmak, gerekse burada yürütülecek dinî hizmetlerle eğitim ve öğretim faaliyetlerinin masraflarını karşılamak için I. Velîd döneminden başlayarak çeşitli vakıflar tahsis edilmiş, zamanla ortadan kalkan bazı vakıfların yerine de yenileri kurulmuştur. Bu çerçevede Yavuz Sultan Selim, caminin bakım, onarım ve aydınlatılması, imam, hatip, müezzin, kayyım, kâri ve müderrislerine ücretlerinin ödenmesi için birçok dükkân, çarşı, han, hamam, köy ve mezra vakfetmiş olup bu vakfiyenin sureti Vakıflar Genel Müdürlüğü Arşivi’nde bulunmaktadır (Mücedded Anadolu Sânî Defteri , nr. 585, sıra 117, s. 111-124; vakfiyenin Türkçe’si için bk. İbrahim Ateş, XII, s. 41-90).
Camide genellikle talebelerin kaldığı “meşhed” denilen ve bazı büyük sahâbîlere izâfe edilerek onların adlarıyla anılan mescid benzeri müstakil mekânların bulunması buraya ayrı bir mânevî değer kazandırmaktadır. Bunlardan kaynaklarda adı geçenler Hz. Ali, Hüseyin, Âişe, Ebû Bekir, Ömer, Osman ve Kellâse meşhedleriyle Ömer b. Abdülazîz mescididir. Camideki diğer önemli bir yer de Hz. Yahyâ’nın türbesidir. Rivayete göre, inşaat sırasında küçük bir dehlizde ve sanduka içinde üzerinde Hz. Yahyâ’ya ait olduğu yazılı, deri ve saçları özelliğini koruyan bir baş bulunarak yerinde muhafaza edilmiş (İbn Şeddâd, s. 47-48; İbn Manzûr, I, 257), daha sonra da üzerine bir türbe yapılmıştır. Yine ana mihrabın (Şâfiî mihrabı) solunda kalan kısımda büyük bir sandık içinde, Hz. Osman’ın Suriye’ye gönderdiği ve Zehebî’nin Taberiye’den 507 (1113) yılında bu camiye getirildiğini söylediği (Nuaymî, II, 400) mushaf bulunmaktadır. İbn Cübeyr sandığın her gün namazlardan sonra, İbn Battûta ise her cuma namazından sonra açıldığını ve mushafı öpmek için büyük bir izdiham yaşandığını kaydetmektedir. İbn Battûta ayrıca, çeşitli anlaşmazlıklar sebebiyle hasımların birbirlerine bu sandığın başında yemin verdirdiklerini kaydeder. Üzerinde el-Mi’zenetü’l-garbiyye’nin yükseldiği Roma burcundaki oda, burada uzlete çekilen İmam Gazzâlî’yi bir müddet barındırmasından dolayı mübarek bir yer olarak kabul edilmektedir.
Caminin asırlardan beri mukaddes tanınan ve ibadethâne olarak kullanılan bir mekânda inşa edilmesi ve müslümanlar tarafından yapılan ilk ve en büyük camilerden biri olması sebebiyle mânevî değeri ve fazileti hakkında çeşitli rivayetler nakledilmiştir ki bunların birçoğunun gerçekle ilgisi yoktur. Katâde’nin Tin sûresinde geçen “tîn”den maksadın bu cami olduğu, Hasan b. Yahyâ’nın isrâ gecesi Hz. Peygamber’in bu caminin yerinde namaz kıldığı, Kâ‘b el-Ahbâr’ın Dımaşk’ta bir caminin yapılacağı ve dünyanın yıkılışından sonra kırk yıl daha ayakta kalacağı (İbn Şeddâd, s. 43-44; İbn Manzûr, I, 255-256), Süfyân es-Sevrî’nin bu camide kılınan bir namazın 30.000 namaz değerinde olduğu (İbn Kesîr, IX, 156-157) yolunda söyledikleri sözlerle âhir zamanda Hz. Îsâ’nın caminin batı tarafındaki minareye ineceğine dair halk arasındaki İnanç (Ekrem Hasan el-Ulebî, Dımaşḳ , s. 167) bunlardan bazılarıdır.
Emeviyye Camii, dinî ve ilmî fonksiyonu yanında Roma mâbedinin içinde yer aldığı ilk halinden itibaren özellikle Emevîler döneminde siyasî hayatta da önemli bir rol oynamıştır. Meselâ Muâviye Hz. Ali’ye muhalefetini bu caminin minberinden ilân etmiş, halifeliğin Emevîler’in Süfyânî kolundan Mervânî koluna geçişini sağlayan ve adını caminin doğu kapısından alan Ceyrûn günü çatışmaları (64/683) burada başlamış ve Emevî halifeleri bu camide hutbe okumuşlardır. Abbâsîler zamanında Bağdat başşehir olunca Emeviyye Camii siyasî önemini kaybettiyse de Selçuklular, Zengîler ve Eyyûbîler devrinde Şam’ın zaman zaman idare merkezi olması sonucu tekrar önem kazandı; daha sonraki dönemlerde ise sosyal, dinî ve ilmî hayatın merkezi olmaya devam etti.
Başlangıçtan beri devletin ileri gelenleri düzenli şekilde Emeviyye Camii’nde namaz kılmaya özen göstermişlerdir. Halk yöneticilerle burada karşılaşarak derdini anlatma fırsatı bulur, haksızlıklara, ağır vergilere ve hayat pahalılığına karşı protestosunu genellikle bu camide dile getirirdi. Haksızlığa uğrayan bir kimse minarelerden birine çıkıp tekbir getirerek kendisine haksızlık yapanı ilân eder (a.g.e. , s. 94, 418), savaş sırasında özellikle kadın ve çocuklar buraya sığınırlardı; caminin çevresindeki çarşılar da ticarî hayatın merkeziydi.
580 yılı Rebîülevvelinde (Haziran 1184) Şam’ı ziyaret eden İbn Cübeyr ve daha sonra İbn Battûta caminin mimari özellikleri, boyutları, bölümleri ve tezyinatı hakkında etraflıca bilgi verirken avlunun da şehir halkı için bir toplantı ve buluşma yeri olduğunu söylemekte ve Şamlılar’ın özellikle her akşam üstü burada bir araya gelip kimilerinin sohbetle, kimilerinin Kur’an okuyarak vakit geçirdiklerini ve yatsı namazından sonra dağıldıklarını, yaşanan büyük hareketliliği de insanın Kadir gecesi sandığını nakletmektedirler.
Şehrin en büyük ve merkezî camii olması ve muhtemelen ihtiyacı da karşılaması sebebiyle cuma namazları şehrin sur içi kesiminde uzun müddet sadece burada kılınmış, İbn Kesîr’in verdiği bilgiye göre ancak 24 Zilkade 765 (23 Ağustos 1364) tarihinden itibaren Şehrezûrî Camii’nde de kılınmaya başlanmıştır (el-Bidâye , IX, 308-309). Fıkıh mezheplerinin ortaya çıkışından sonra farklı mezhep mensuplarının burada kendi imamlarının arkasında ayrı ayrı cemaatler halinde namaz kıldıkları görülmektedir. İbn Şeddâd (ö. 684/1285), kendi zamanında camide muhtelif yerlerde dokuz ayrı imamın namaz kıldırdığını, İbn Battûta ise (ö. 770/1368-69 [?]) camide on üç imam olduğunu, ilk defa Şâfiî imamının, ondan sonra da sırasıyla Hz. Ali, Hüseyin, Kellâse, Ebû Bekir, Ömer ve Osman meşhedleri imamlarının, bunların ardından Mâlikî, Hanefî ve Hanbelî imamlarının vakit namazlarını kıldırdıklarını, daha sonra da beş imam tarafından kaza namazı kıldırıldığını, böylece camide sabahtan gece yarısına kadar cemaatle namazın devam ettiğini söylemektedir. Yine İbn Battûta’nın verdiği bilgiye göre müezzinlerin sayısı da yetmiştir. Çağdaş yazarlardan Ekrem Hasan el-Ulebî, bugün yalnız Şâfiî ve Hanefî mihraplarında namaz kılındığını ve önceliğin Şâfiî imamında olduğunu, ramazanda ise teravih namazının biri camide, diğeri Meşhed-i Alî’de olmak üzere iki ayrı yerde kıldırıldığını yazmaktadır. İbn Kesîr, kıble duvarındaki özel mihraplarda Hanefî, Mâlikî ve Hanbelî imamlara namaz kıldırma yetkisinin 23 Receb 728 (3 Haziran 1328) tarihinde verildiğini, daha önce bunların caminin başka yerlerinde namaz kıldırdıklarını söylemektedir (a.g.e. , XIV, 134).
Şam’da birçok medrese bulunmakla birlikte Emeviyye Camii’nin eğitim ve öğretim hayatında ayrı bir yeri olmuştur. Caminin harimiyle avlu ve revaklarında çeşitli ders halkalarının kurulduğu bilinmektedir. İlk ders halkasının eski camide Abdülmelik b. Mervân zamanında (685-705) Hişâm b. İsmâil el-Mahzûmî tarafından oluşturulduğu ve kıraat dersi verilen bu halkanın daha sonraki sub‘ meclislerinin de esasını teşkil ettiği söylenmektedir (İbn Manzûr, I, 274). Camide her gün sabah namazından sonra Hz. Yahyâ Türbesi’nin karşısında Kur’an’ın yedide biri okunur ve sub‘ adı verilen bu kıraat halkasında haftada bir hatim indirilirdi. İkindi namazlarından sonra da Kevser sûresinden Kur’an’ın sonuna kadar okunur, daha çok ezberi iyi olmayanlarla çocukların katıldığı bu kıraat halkasına da Kevseriyye denirdi. Camideki çeşitli İslâmî ilimlerle ilgili ders halkaları yanında bu iki kıraat meclisine katılanlara da vakıflar tahsis edilmişti. İbn Cübeyr, sub‘ meclisinden sonra buna katılanların her birinin bir çocuğa Kur’an öğrettiğini ve bu çocuklara da vakıf malından tahsisat ayrıldığını kaydeder. İbn Battûta, bu iki meclise iştirak edenlerin 600 kadar olduğunu ve meclise katılıp katılmadıklarının kontrol edildiğini, gelmeyenlerin devamsızlıkları ölçüsünde tahsisatlarının kesildiğini zikreder. İbn Şeddâd, kendi zamanında cami bünyesinde altı medresenin yer aldığını belirterek bunların adlarını verir; ayrıca burada on bir ilim halkası, beş hadis halkası, 120 Kur’an okutma ve tâlim halkası ile en büyüklerine 300-400 kişinin katıldığı yirmi dört ayrı sub‘ meclisi bulunduğunu kaydeder (el-Aʿlâḳu’l-ḫaṭîre , s. 82-85).
Camideki ilim halkalarının en önemlisi Kubbetü’n-nesr’in altındaydı ve yüksek seviyede bir meclisti. XVII. yüzyılda Şam’ı ziyaret eden İbrâhim b. Abdurrahman el-Hıyârî buradaki eğitime çok rağbet olduğunu ve hocalarına “müderrisü’l-kubbe” denildiğini kaydeder (Yûsuf Cemîl Nuayse, II, 393). Eğitim öğretim faaliyetlerinin dışında ayrıca caminin çeşitli yerlerinde ilmî sohbetler yapılır ve başka İslâm ülkelerinden gelen meşhur âlimler de bu sohbetlere katılarak sorulara cevap verirlerdi. Şam’a yeni gelen bir âlim, büyük ilgi gören bu sohbetlerde ilmî yeteneğini ispat edemezse ulemânın ve halkın iltifatına mazhar olmaz ve tutunamayıp giderdi. Osmanlı devrinin sonlarına kadar canlılığını koruyan ilim halkaları, daha sonra büyük âlimlerin de pek yetişmemesi sebebiyle giderek önemini kaybetmiş ve cami ibadet mekânı olmasının yanında bir dinlenme ve sohbet yeri haline gelmiştir.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
VGMA, Mücedded Anadolu Sânî Defteri , nr. 585, sıra 117, s. 111-124.
İbn Cübeyr, er-Riḥle , Beyrut 1400/1980, s. 235-246.
İbn Şeddâd, el-Aʿlâḳu’l-ḫaṭîre fî ẕikri ümerâʾi’ş-Şâm ve’l-Cezîre (nşr. Sâmî ed-Dehhân), Dımaşk 1375/1956, s. 43-85.
İbn Manzûr, Muḫtaṣaru Târîḫi Dımaşḳ , I, 255-274.
İbn Battûta, er-Riḥle , Beyrut, ts. (Dâru Sâdır), s. 89-106.
İbn Kesîr, el-Bidâye , VIII, 240; IX, 142-161, 308-309; XIV, 134.
Nuaymî, ed-Dâris fî târîḫi’l-medâris (nşr. Ca‘fer el-Hâsenî), Kahire 1988, II, 371-416.
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Ekrem Hasan el-Ulebî, Dımaşḳ beyne ʿaṣri’l-Memâlîk ve’l-ʿOs̱mâniyyîn , Dımaşk 1402/1982, s. 94, 165-171, 418.
a.mlf., Ḫıṭaṭu Dımaşḳ , Dımaşk 1410/1989, s. 284-304.
Muhammed Kürd Ali, Ḫıṭaṭu Dımaşḳ , Dımaşk 1403/1983, V, 248-263.
Yûsuf Cemîl Nuayse, Müctemaʿu Medîneti Dımaşḳ, 1186-1256 h. , Dımaşk 1986, II, 392-395.
Muhammed Behcet el-Baytâr, “el-Müderrisûn taḥte Ḳubbeti’n-nesr”, MMİADm. , XXIV (1949), s. 59-72, 222-233.
İbrahim Ateş, “Şam Ümeyye Camii ve Vakfiyesi”, VD , XII (1978), s. 27-90.
Ahmed Ramazan Ahmed, “el-Mescidü’l-Ümevî beyne’l-ḥaḳīḳa ve’l-usṭûre kemâ câʾe fî Târîḫi Dımaşḳ, l’İbn ʿAsâkir”, ed-Dâre , V/4, Riyad 1400/1980, s. 213-237.
Maddenin bu bölümü TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 1995 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 11. cildinde, 109-111 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.