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İKLİM Skip to content Ekvatordan kuzey kutbuna doğru yeryüzünün ayrıldığı yedi bölgeden her biri; coğrafî alan, mıntıka, diyar.
İklîm , Grekçe “meyil” anlamındaki klima kelimesinin Arapçalaşmış şeklidir (çoğulu ekālîm ). Gerçekten de iklim sistemi, güneşin ekvatora göre az veya çok kazandığı eğilim üzerine dayandırılmıştır (Ebü’l-Fidâ, tercüme edenin önsözü, I, s. CCXXV). Kelime Arapça’ya Farsça aracılığıyla “bölge” anlamını da kazanarak girmiş ve bu anlamıyla coğrafya ile ilgili birçok kitap adı içerisinde yer almıştır. “Felekü’l-burûc” yerine kullanılan “iklîmü’r-rü’yâ” tabirinde de geçen terim günümüzde daha çok hava şartlarını ifade etmektedir.
İslâm coğrafyacılarının iklim konusundaki ilk bilgileri Doğu menşelidir. Önce Halife Mansûr döneminde (745-775) Abbâsî sarayına gelen bazı eserlerin, özellikle Sanskritçe Brahmasphutasiddhanta ’nın tercümesiyle yeryüzünün şekli, dönmesi, bilinen son sınırları, üzerini örten kubbe ve Orta Hindistan’da hesap edilen enlem ve boylamlar gibi coğrafya-astronomi bilgileri öğrenilmiş, arkasından diğer halifelerin teşvikiyle sürdürülen tercüme faaliyetleri sonucunda Grek hey’et-coğrafya ilminin ortaya koyduğu bilgilere ulaşılmıştır. Bu dönemde özellikle Batlamyus’un Geographia ’sı (Geographike Hyphegesis ) birçok defa tercüme edilmiştir (bk. BATLAMYUS ).
Yeryüzünün yedi iklime ayrılması fikri Batlamyus’a izâfe edilmekteyse de aslında İranlılar’a aittir. İranlılar, o güne kadar bilinen dünyayı enlem ölçülerini hesaba katmadan ve İran merkezde kalacak şekilde Hint, Arabistan, Çin, İran, Afrika, Türk ve Rum (Bizans, Anadolu) olmak üzere yedi iklime (kişver) ayırmışlardır. Uzun süre Arap coğrafyacılarını etkileyen bu sistemde Bîrûnî’ye göre İran da (Îran-şehr) Horasan, Fars, Cibâl ve Irak’tan meydana gelmekteydi. Ekvatordan itibaren kuzeye doğru uzanan ve Ebü’l-Fidâ’ya göre 12-50 dereceleri arasındaki bölgeleri tasnif eden bu sistemde yedi iklimin dışında da iskâna açık yerler vardı. Nitekim İbn Saîd el-Mağribî gibi bazı Arap coğrafyacıları ekvatorun biraz güneyindeki meskûn mahalleri sekizinci, en kuzeydeki bölgeleri de dokuzuncu iklim olarak kabul etmişlerdir. Ancak yedi sayısını değiştiren bir tasnifin İranlılar’ın yedi kişveri, Hintliler’in yedi duipası ve Kur’an’ın yedi kat gök ve yedi kat yer inancıyla ters düşeceği ve bazı dinî tatbikatı güçleştireceği açıktır (a.g.e. , I, s. CCXXIV-CCXXV). Ebü’l-Fidâ’nın belirttiğine göre iklimlerin sınırları tesbit edilirken enlemler bir iklimdeki en uzun gün esas alınarak hesaplanmış ve başlangıçla bitiş noktaları arasındaki mesafe yarım saat olan yerler bir iklim sayılmıştır. Böylece yeryüzünün kuzey yarım küresi yedi eşit enlem dairesine bölünmüştür (a.g.e. , II, 8). İklimler uzunluk yönünden dünyanın şekli dolayısıyla kuzeye doğru gidildikçe kısalır. Bunların ilk ikisinde yer yer boş alanlarla çöl ve çorak yerler vardır ve insanların sayısı azdır. 3-6. iklimlerin çöl ve çorak yerleri az, insanları çok olup şehir ve kasabaları sayısızdır. 6-7. iklimlerdeki imar ise bunlara nisbetle daha azdır (İbn Haldûn, I, 279, 283).
İslâm coğrafyacıları Hint ve İran’daki uygulamalara dayalı olan eski bilgilerine, özellikle Halife Me’mûn döneminde Batlamyus’un Geographia ’sının tercümesiyle yeni bilgiler kattılar. Batlamyus, Hipparkhos’un yeryüzüne ait sağlıklı bir haritanın yapılabilmesi için önemli noktaların enlem ve boylamlarının tesbit edilmesi gerektiğine dair görüşünü uygulamaya koyarak gün ve gece uzunluklarına dayanan sistemiyle dünyanın meskûn kısımlarını yirmi bir iklime ayırmıştı. Muhammed b. Mûsâ el-Hârizmî Ṣûretü’l-arż adlı eserinde Batlamyus sistemini tashih ve tâdil etti; ayrıca yedi iklime göre cetveller düzenledi. Daha bu dönemde, istisnaları bir yana bırakılacak olursa Batlamyus sisteminin hesaba dayalı verileri yanında yeryüzünün tasnif ve tavsifi de ön plana çıkmıştır. Nitekim Hârizmî’nin eserinde bir harita bulunmamakla birlikte mevcut enlem ve boylam ölçüleri böyle bir haritanın çizilmesine imkân vermektedir.
İslâm ilim tarihinin klasik döneminde genel tasvirî coğrafya çalışmaları Irak coğrafya okulu mensuplarınca yürütüldü. İranlılar’ın kişver sisteminde İran’ın yerleştirildiği merkezdeki dördüncü iklim diğerlerine göre daha önemli görülmüştür. Ya‘kūbî ve İbn Hurdâzbih, bu uygulamadan hareketle İran’ın yerine üzerinde Abbâsî hilâfetinin toprakları bulunan Irak’ı sistemin merkezi yapmışlardır. Bu sistemde dördüncü iklimin merkezî iklim olarak önem kazanması, Endülüslü coğrafyacı Ahmed b. Muhammed er-Râzî’nin burayı kendi memleketine tahsis etmesinde de görülmektedir.
Belh coğrafya okulu ile kısmen Batlamyus’un, kısmen İranlılar’ın kişver sistemi esas alınarak ancak farklı bir yaklaşımla sadece İslâm ülkelerini kapsayan yeni bir tasnif dönemine girildi ve böylece mahallî coğrafyaya doğru ilk adım atıldı. Bu sistemde, Mekke ve Kâbe’nin yer aldığı Arabistan dünyanın merkezî iklimi kabul edilerek İslâm ülkelerinin ve bunlara sınır komşusu olan memleketlerin tasviri yapıldı. İstahrî (ö. 346/957) ilk defa iklim haritalarını çizdi ve İbn Havkal de bunları geliştirdi; ancak burada iklimler enlemlere göre çizilmemiş, haritaları çizilen bölgelere iklim denilmiştir. İstahrî’nin Arabistan, Bahr-i Fars, Mağrib, Mısır, Arz-ı Şam, Bahr-i Rûm, Arz-ı Cezîre, Irak, Hûzistan, Fars, Kirman, Sind, Azerbaycan, Cibâl, Deylem, Bahr-i Hazer, Mefâzet-i Horasan, Sicistan, Horasan ve Mâverâünnehir’den oluşan yirmi iklimi, İbn Havkal’de Endülüs ve Sıkılliye’nin ilâvesiyle yirmi ikiye çıkmıştır. Belh coğrafya okulunun çalışmalarını zirveye ulaştıran Makdisî ise coğrafya ilminin insanların işi, dolayısıyla kara ile ilgili olduğunu belirtip denizlerle çöllere iklim denilmesine karşı çıkmış ve iklimleri altısı Arap (Arabistan, Irak, Akūr [Cezîre], Şam, Mısır, Mağrib), sekizi gayr-i Arab (Meşriḳ [Sicistan, Horasan, Mâverâünnehir], Deylem, Rihâb [İrmîniye, Arrân, Azerbaycan], Cibâl, Hûzistan, Fars, Kirman, Sind) müslümanların yaşadığı yerler olmak üzere on dört sayısıyla sınırlandırmıştır. İklimleri anlatırken tabii ve beşerî coğrafya açılarından bilgi veren Makdisî her iklimin kuzey, güney, doğu ve batı sınırlarını belirtip iklimleri küver, kasabât, müdün ve kurâ şeklinde alt bölümlere ayırarak aralarındaki büyüklük farklarını da iklimlerin melik, kasabaların vezir, medinelerin asker, karyelerin halk oldukları benzetmesiyle açıklamıştır. Şehirlerin tasvir ve tanıtımlarını ise dinî kültür ve İslâm tarihiyle ilgileri, idarî teşkilâttaki yerleri, ticarî merkez oluşları, çarşı ve pazarları, ölçü ve tartı aletleriyle kuralları, tedavüldeki para çeşitleri, binaları, su kaynakları, yolları, insanlarının âdetleri, dil ve lehçeleri, ahlâkları, yiyecek ve içeceklerini dikkate alarak yapmıştır (Muhammed Mahmûd Muhammedeyn, Buḥûs̱ü’l-müʾtemer , III, 344-352).
İslâm coğrafyasının zirveye çıktığı dönemde Şerîf el-İdrîsî’nin yazdığı Nüzhetü’l-müştâḳ ’ta yer alan yetmiş haritadan her biri yedi iklimden birinin onda birine karşılık gelmektedir; böylece Batlamyus’a göre meskûn olan dünyanın tam bir haritası yapılmıştır. Eserin bir muhtasarına (Süleymaniye Ktp., Hekimoğlu Ali Paşa, nr. 688) eklenen haritalarda ise ekvatorun güneyindeki sekizinci iklim denilen yerler de gösterilmiştir. Yedi iklimi ona bölme usulüne İbn Haldûn da uymuş ve coğrafyacıların iklimlerden her birini uzunlamasına batıdan doğuya doğru on eşit parçaya böldüklerini belirterek (Mukaddime , I, 279, 293) kendisi de her iklime ait belde, şehir, dağ, nehir ve yolları on kısım halinde sunmuştur. İbn Saîd ise yedi iklimi ikişer kısma ayırarak ele almıştır.
Ebü’l-Fidâ, İslâm coğrafyasının mevcut bütün bilgilerini gözden geçirerek yeryüzünün taksimi konusundaki Batlamyus sistemiyle Arap coğrafyacılarının geliştirdikleri yedi iklimli sistemi birleştirecek bir yöntem uygulamış ve şehirleri sıralarken “ekālîm-i hakīkiyye” dediği yedi iklimden hangisinin neresine dahil bulunduğunu belirttikten sonra “ekālîm-i örfiyye” dediği “coğrafî bölge, diyar, memleket” anlamındaki iklimlerden hangisinde yer aldığını göstermiştir. Onun sayılarını yirmi sekiz olarak tesbit ettiği örfî iklimler Cezîretülarap, Mısır, Mağrib, Endülüs, Cezâyirü’l-bihâri’l-garbiyye, Şam, el-Cezîre, Irak, Hûzistan, Fars, Kirman, Sicistan, Sind, Hint, Sîn, Cezâyirü’l-bihâri’ş-şarkıyye, Rum, İrmîniye-Arrân-Azerbaycan, Cebel, Deylem-Gîlân, Taberistan, Horasan, Zâbülistan, Tohâristan-Bedahşan, Hârizm, Mâverâünnehir, Tarafü’l-cenûbî ve Tarafü’ş-şimâlî’dir. XVI. yüzyıl Osmanlı coğrafyacısı Âşık Mehmed, daha önceki İslâm coğrafyacılarından intikal eden bilgilerin tamamını, ayrıca seyahatleri neticesinde kazandığı kendi bilgilerini ve çeşitli kişilerden duyduklarını kullanarak coğrafyanın bütün şubelerini ele aldığı Menâzırü’l-avâlim ’de (Süleymaniye Ktp., Hâlet Efendi, nr. 616) Ebü’l-Fidâ’nın yirmi sekiz örfî iklimini göstermiştir (vr. 149a ).
Âşık Mehmed eserinde, şehirler kısmına başlamadan önce müstakil bir bölüm halinde (II. bab, 4. manzara) ve “Hikmet-i Hakîm-i İllet-i Hikemiyyeye Dâl Olan Heft İklîm” başlığı altında yedi iklimi ölçüleri ve sınırlarıyla ayrıntılı bir şekilde tanıtmıştır (vr. 148a ).
Şehirler kısmında ise Taḳvîmü’l-büldân ’ın tertibini esas alması sebebiyle Ebü’l-Fidâ’nın ekālîm-i hakīkiyye ve ekālîm-i örfiyye tasnifini aynen yansıtmıştır. Ancak adaları müstakil bir bölüm halinde (II. bab, 6. manzara) incelediği için Ebü’l-Fidâ’nın beş ve on altıncı iklimlerini sıralama dışı bırakmış, böylece örfî iklim sayısını on altıya indirmiştir. Ayrıca Taḳvîmü’l-büldân ’da bulunmayan şehirleri de Nüzhetü’l-ḳulûb ve Âs̱ârü’l-bilâd gibi eserlerden tamamlayarak ait oldukları hakiki iklimde ve ilgili örfî iklimin sonunda “Tezyîlü’l-iklîmi’l-örfî” başlığıyla göstermiş, hangi iklime girdiği şüpheli bazı şehirleri de “Bilâdü muhtelitâti’l-ekālîmi’l-örfiyye” başlığı altında verip iklim tatbikatını çok yönlü olarak gerçekleştirmiştir.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
Ebü’l-Fidâ, Géographie d’Aboulféda (trc. M. Reinaud), Paris 1848, II, 8; ayrıca bk. tercüme edenin önsözü, I, s. XXIV-XXXII, CCXXIV-CCXXV.
Nüveyrî, Nihâyetü’l-ereb , I, 209-213.
İbn Haldûn, Mukaddime (trc. Süleyman Uludağ), İstanbul 1982, I, 277-330.
Kalkaşendî, Ṣubḥu’l-aʿşâ (Şemseddin) , III, 232-236.
Âşık Mehmed, Menâzırü’l-avâlim , Süleymaniye Ktp., Hâlet Efendi, nr. 616, vr. 148a -149a ; a.e. (Tahlil-Metin) (haz. Mahmut Ak, doktora tezi, 1997), İÜ Ed.Fak. Genel Ktp., nr. Dr. TE 116.
Barthold, İslâm Medeniyeti , s. 154-165.
Muhammed Mahmûd Muhammedeyn, et-Türâs̱ü’l-coġrâfiyyü’l-İslâmî , Riyad 1404/1984, II, 113-127.
a.mlf., “Mefhûmü’l-iḳlîm ve üslûbu dirâsetih ʿinde’l-Muḳaddesî”, Buḥûs̱ü’l-müʾtemeri’l-coġrâfiyyi’l-İslâmiyyi’l-evvel , Riyad 1404/1984, III, 339-353.
Fr. Taeschner, “Osmanlılarda Coğrafya” (trc. Hâmid Sadi), TM , II (1928), s. 289.
J. H. Kramers, “Coğrafya”, İA , III, 202-220.
T. H. Weir, “İklim”, a.e. , V/2, s. 948.
S. Maqbul Ahmad, “D̲j̲ug̲h̲rāfiyā”, EI2 (Fr.) , II, 590-602.
a.mlf., “Coğrafya”, DİA , VIII, 53, 57, 59, 61, 63.
A. Miquel, “Iḳlīm”, EI2 (Fr.) , III, 1103-1105.
İsmet Miroğlu, “Âşık Mehmed”, DİA , III, 553.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2000 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 22. cildinde, 28-30 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.