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KAPIKULU Skip to content KAPIKULU Osmanlı Devleti’nin merkez kuvvetlerini teşkil eden maaşlı askerlerin genel adı.
Müellif: Abdülkadir Özcan
Osmanlılar’da doğrudan padişaha bağlı olarak sarayda görevli maaşlı askerî zümreler için bu vasıflarını belirtmek üzere kullanılan kapıkulu terimi zamanla varlıklı veya nüfuz sahibi kimselerin hizmetinde bulunanları da ifade etmiştir. Askerî mânada kapıkulu İslâm devletlerindeki hassa askerî teşkilâtını karşılamaktadır. İslâm Türk devletlerinden Karahanlılar, Gazneliler, Hârizmşahlar, Selçuklular, Eyyûbîler ve Moğollar’da hassa askerî teşkilâtı bulunmakta olup bunların kaynağını genellikle savaş esirleri veya köleler oluşturmuştur.
Osmanlılar’da hassa askerleri Kapıkulu ocakları adı altında çeşitli sınıflara ayrılmıştır. Bunlar önceleri pençik kanununa göre alınan savaş esirlerinden seçilirken daha sonra devşirme kanununa göre toplanan Osmanlı tebaası gayri müslim çocuklarından teşkil edilmiştir. Bazan “kul taifesi” olarak da anılan bu birlikler esas olarak merkezde bulunurlar, sefer esnasında ve ordugâhta padişahı ve otağını muhafaza ederlerdi.
Kapıkulu askerleri yaya ve atlı olmak üzere iki ana gruba ayrılmıştı. Yayalar kendi aralarında acemi, yeniçeri, cebeci, topçu, top arabacısı, humbaracı ve lağımcı adları altında yedi ocaktan oluşmaktaydı. Bazı kaynaklarda top arabacıları, lağımcı ve humbaracı ocaklarından söz edilmemekte, buna karşılık sakaların adı geçmekte (Marsigli, s. 70, 72, 89), bazılarında ise sadece lağımcılara yer verilmemektedir (Ahmed Cevâd, s. 3). Bir kısım kaynaklarda humbaracılar ve lağımcılarla birlikte sakalardan da söz edilmektedir (Mahmud Şevket Paşa, s. 6).
Erleri acemi oğlanı adıyla anılan Acemi Ocağı bazı kaynaklarda Kapıkulu ocakları arasında geçmemekle birlikte başta Yeniçeri Ocağı olmak üzere diğer Kapıkulu ocaklarına asker yetiştirmekteydi. Yeniçeriler Kapıkulu ocaklarının ilk kurulan kısmı, en kalabalık ve en nüfuzlu askerleriydi. XV. yüzyıldan itibaren Hacı Bektâş-ı Velî’ye nisbetle Bektaşî Ocağı adıyla da anılan Yeniçeri Ocağı cemaat ortaları, sekban ve ağa bölükleri diye üç kısma, bunlar da kendi içlerinde çeşitli birliklere ayrılırdı. Cebeci Ocağı’nın mensupları olan cebecilerin başlıca görevi yeniçerilere silâh temin etmek, bu silâhların bakım ve muhafazasını yapmaktı. Topçu Ocağı’nda çeşitli ebatta gülleler atabilen irili ufaklı toplar imal edilir ve bunlar üzerinde eğitim yapılırdı. Top imal eden ve kullanan diye iki sınıfa ayrılan topçuların da kaynağı Acemi Ocağı idi. Top Arabacıları Ocağı, büyük topların naklinde kullanılan arabaların imal edildiği ve bakımının yapıldığı yaya kapıkulu ocağıydı. Küçük ve fazla ağır olmayan toplar katır ve deve sırtında taşınır, top nakli mümkün olmayan yerlerde ise seyyar top dökümhaneleri kurularak buralarda toplar ve gülleler dökülürdü. Top arabası imalâthanesi İstanbul’da Tophane’de, arabacıların kışlaları Şehremini, arabaları çeken hayvanların ahırları ise Ahırkapı semtlerindeydi. Bir tür el bombası imal edicileri ve kullanıcıları olan humbaracılar önceleri cebeci ve topçu ocaklarına bağlı iken İstanbul’un fethinden sonra müstakil hale getirilmişlerdi. Humbaracıların merkezde bulunanları ulûfeli, taşradakiler ise dirlikli idi (bk. HUMBARACI ). Yaya Kapıkulu ocaklarından olan Lağımcı Ocağı’nın askerleri özellikle kale muhasaralarında toprak altında tüneller açarak buralara yerleştirdikleri patlayıcı maddelerle fetihleri kolaylaştırırlardı. Cebecibaşıya bağlı olan ulûfeli lağımcılar merkezde, lağımcıbaşıya bağlı dirlikli lağımcılar taşrada bulunurdu.
Atlı Kapıkulu ocakları sipah, silâhdar, ulûfeci ve gurebâ bölüklerinden teşekkül eder, bunlardan ulûfeci ve gurebâ bölükleri sağ ve sol diye ayrıca ikiye ayrılırdı. Atlı merkez kuvvetlerinden ilk teşkil edilen silâhdar bölüğü olup sipah bölüğü Fâtih Sultan Mehmed zamanında kurulmuştur. Daha sonra sağ ve sol ulûfecilerle sağ ve sol gariplerin de ilâvesiyle süvari Kapıkulu ocaklarının sayısı altıya çıkmıştır. Marsigli çavuşları da kapıkulu süvarileri arasında zikretmektedir (Osmanlı İmparatorluğunun Askeri Vaziyeti, s. 70, 100). Timarlı sipahilerden ayırmak için kapıkulu süvarilerine altı bölük adı verilmiştir. Ulûfeciyan ve gurebâ bölüklerine ise bölükât-ı erbaa veya dört bölük denirdi. Mevki ve rütbe yönünden yaya kapıkulu neferlerinden yüksek olan süvariler nüfuz bakımından yeniçerilerden sonra gelirlerdi. Kapıkulu süvarilerinin en imtiyazlıları sipah ve silâhdar bölükleri olup bunlara yukarı bölükler adı da verilmiştir. Bunların ve orta bölükler diye de anılan ulûfeci bölüklerinin kendilerinden başka aldıkları ücretlere göre hizmet neferleri vardı. Aşağı bölükler olarak bilinen gurebâ bölüklerinin ise hizmet neferleri yoktu.
Kapıkulu askerleri doğrudan padişahın şahsına bağlı olduğundan sadece onunla birlikte seferlere katılırlardı. Ancak Kanûnî Sultan Süleyman’dan sonraki padişahların başkumandan olarak sefere çıkma geleneğini terketmeleri üzerine III. Murad zamanında bu teamülden vazgeçilmiş, kapıkulu askerleri artık serdâr-ı ekremlerin kumandası altında sefere çıkmaya başlamışlardır (Eyyûbî Efendi Kānûnnâmesi, s. 41).
Pençik ve devşirme kanunlarına göre toplanan ve Türk-İslâm terbiyesine göre yetiştirilen kul taifesi sadece orduda değil devlete ait saray ve bahçelerde de istihdam edilirdi. Nitekim hükümdarlık saraylarının hizmet erbabı ve muhafızları olan baltacı ve bostancılar, hatta kapıcı gibi saray görevlileri de kapıkulu olarak adlandırılırdı. Baltacı ve bostancıların zaman zaman kapıkulu süvariliğine terfi ettirildikleri de olurdu. Kapıkulu olarak devlet hizmetine giren bir nefer, kabiliyeti varsa devletin en yüksek makamı olan sadrazamlığa kadar yükselebilirdi.
Eski gulâm sisteminin Osmanlı döneminde yeniden organizasyonu sayılan kapıkulunun nüfuzu Yıldırım Bayezid zamanında artmaya başlamıştır. Bu padişahın Anadolu’da güttüğü merkeziyetçi siyaset gereği önemli idarî ve askerî görevler doğrudan padişaha bağlı kapıkullarına verilerek kendi başlarına hareket eden güçlü yerli ailelerin, Türkmen beylerinin nüfuzları kırılmak istenmiş, fakat 1402 Ankara bozgunuyla bu faaliyet yarım kalmıştır. Daha sonraki toparlanma döneminde gerek Çelebi Mehmed gerekse oğlu II. Murad izledikleri yumuşak siyasetle kullar ve timarlı sipahiler arasında denge kurmaya çalışmışlar ve başarılı da olmuşlardır. Fâtih Sultan Mehmed zamanında kul sisteminin yerleşmesiyle, nüfuzları iyice artan kapıkulu askerleri savaşlarda etkin rol oynamışlardır.
Kapıkulu, ilk defa 1444-1446 yılları arasında II. Mehmed’in birinci hükümdarlık döneminde devlet adamları tarafından nüfuz mücadelesi için etkili bir şekilde kullanılmıştır. II. Mehmed’in tahttan uzaklaştırılması ve II. Murad’ın yeniden saltanatı elde etmesi olaylarında kapıkulu askerleri önemli rol oynamış ve bir bakıma güçlerinin nerelere kadar ulaşabileceğini görmüşlerdir. Kapıkulu, nisbeten eski Osmanlı geleneğini devam ettiren irsî ve yarı feodal bir yapıya sahip uç beylerine karşı da merkezî otoritenin en büyük dayanağı idi. Zira bu beyler, padişaha ve merkezî kuvveti temsil eden beylerbeyilerine karşı gelmekten, hatta merkeze baş kaldıran şehzadeleri desteklemekten çekinmezlerdi. II. Mehmed, mutlak hâkimiyetini kurabilmek için bu iki gücün nüfuzunu kırmaya çalışmış ve bunda başarılı olmuştur. Karaman seferi dönüşünde 1451’de, Çandarlı Halil Paşa’nın adamı yeniçeri ağası Kurtçu Doğan ile birçok ocak ileri gelenleri ve askerleri ordudan atmış, yerlerine doğrudan saraya bağlı sekban bölüklerinden tayinler yapmış, bundan böyle yeniçeri ağalığına da sekbanbaşılar getirilmeye başlanmıştır. İstanbul’un fethinden sonra merkeziyetçi ve mutlak iktidarını yerleştirmek için Çandarlı Halil Paşa’yı bertaraf eden Fâtih Sultan Mehmed vezîriâzamlığa devşirme asıllı vezirleri getirmeye özen göstermiş, böylece kul sistemini yerleştirmeye gayret etmiştir. Bu arada doğrudan şahsına bağlı kapıkulu ordusunu yeniden düzenlemiş ve güçlendirmiştir. Onun zamanında mevcudu 8-10.000 civarında olan Yeniçeri Ocağı merkezî otoritenin başlıca dayanağı olmuştur.
Fâtih Sultan Mehmed’in ölümünden sonra II. Bayezid’in tahta geçmesi de kapıkulunun kendisine verdiği destek sayesinde gerçekleşmiştir. Nitekim dönemin vezîriâzamı Karamânî Mehmed Paşa’nın Şehzade Cem’i tutmasına karşı yeniçeriler Şehzade Bayezid’i destekleyip yeni padişahtan kul olmayanları devlet idaresine getirmeme sözü almışlardı. II. Bayezid zamanında Gedik Ahmed Paşa’nın öldürülmesinin ardından muhalefete kalkışan yeniçerilere karşı padişah yeni bir güç olarak Yeniçeri Ocağı içinde doğrudan kendisine bağlı ağa bölüklerini kurmuştur. II. Bayezid’in, büyük oğlu Şehzade Ahmed lehine saltanattan çekilmek istemesine rağmen yine yeniçerilerin destek verdikleri Şehzade Selim tahta geçmiştir. Yavuz Sultan Selim’in Çaldıran seferine giderken bazı devlet ricâlinin tahrikleriyle padişahın otağına kurşun sıkacak kadar ileri giden yeniçeriler zafer sonrasında hemen İstanbul’a dönülmesi hususuna da alet edilmişler, fakat bu tahriklerin fâilleri şiddetle cezalandırılmıştır.
Kanûnî Sultan Süleyman döneminin başlarında bazı devlet adamlarının tahrikiyle ayaklanan yeniçeriler, bu defa Vezîriâzam Makbul İbrâhim Paşa’yı azlettirmek istemişlerse de bunu gerçekleştirememişlerdi. II. Selim’in cülûsunda bahşiş yüzünden yaptıkları taşkınlıklar da Sokullu Mehmed Paşa’nın aldığı tedbirlerle önlenmişti.
XVI. yüzyılın ikinci yarısından itibaren vezîriâzamların mevkilerini güçlendirmek amacıyla Kapıkulu ocaklarını kışkırtmaları âdeta mûtat hale geldi. Meselâ Yemişçi Hasan Paşa’yı azlettirip yerine geçmek isteyen sadâret kaymakamı Güzelce Mahmud Paşa’nın bu hususta kapıkulu süvarisinin desteğini ve şeyhülislâmın fetvasını padişaha bildirmesi üzerine III. Mehmed vezîriâzamı bir suç işlediyse kendisinin cezalandırabileceğini, veziriyle kendisi arasına kulun girmesine gerek olmadığını belirtmişti. Ancak bu olay, Yemişçi Hasan Paşa’nın dayandığı yeniçerilerle kapıkulu süvarilerini karşı karşıya getirmiş (Kâtib Çelebi, I, 187 vd.), bu durum kapıkulu içinde birbirine muhalif iki grubun ortaya çıkmasına yol açmıştır.
Kapıkulu askerleri en büyük infiallerini II. Osman’a karşı göstermişler ve yeniçeriler, ocaklarını kaldırmak isteyen padişahın feci şekilde ölümüne sebep olmuşlardır. Bu olaydan sonra yeniçeriler IV. Murad’ın 1632’de işleri ele almasına kadar devlet işlerinde etkilerini göstermişlerdir. Yaklaşık on yıl kadar süren bu dönemde mevkilerini güçlendirmek isteyen vezîriâzamlar kapıkulu askerlerini siyasî emelleri için kullanmışlardır. Sultan İbrâhim’in tahttan indirilmesinde de rol oynayan yeniçeriler, çocuk yaştaki padişah IV. Mehmed’in ilk sekiz yılında sadrazam tayinlerinde belirleyici bir güç olmuşlar, bu arada yine iktidar mücadelelerine alet edilmişlerdir. Bu karışıklıklar 1656 yılında Köprülü Mehmed Paşa’nın sadrazamlığına kadar sürmüştür. II. Viyana Kuşatması’ndan sonra başlayan çok cepheli savaşlar gerek merkezde gerek taşrada bütün dengeleri altüst etmiş, kapıkulu zümreleri merkez dışında da etkili şekilde yayılmıştır. 1703 Edirne Vak‘ası kapıkulunun yeni bir güç denemesi haline dönüşürken aynı durum 1730 Patrona Halil İsyanı ile bir defa daha ortaya çıkmış, ancak onu takip eden yıllarda alınan tedbirlerle nisbeten kapıkulu zümreleri arasında belirli bir mutabakat sağlanmış, bu arada ocakları ıslah çalışmalarına da hız verilmiştir. Ancak III. Selim döneminde kurulan Nizâm-ı Cedîd ordusunun yeniçerilerin tehdidiyle ilga edilmesinin ardından artık Kapıkulu ocaklarının en etkili son temsilcisi gibi kalan Yeniçeri Ocağı II. Mahmud tarafından kaldırılmış, diğer Kapıkulu ocakları da ya ilga edilmiş veya hazırlanan yeni kanunlarla yeniden teşkilâtlandırılmıştır.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
3 Numaralı Mühimme Defteri (nşr. Nezihi Aykut v.dğr.), Ankara 1993, s. 105, 106, 594. Selânikî, Târih (İpşirli), I, 414; II, 512, 612, 746, 747.Mebde-i Kānûn-ı Yeniçeri , tür.yer. Ayn Ali, Kavânîn-i Âl-i Osmân , s. 88 vd. Kitâb-ı Müstetâb (nşr. Yaşar Yücel), Ankara 1974, s. 15 vd. Koçi Bey, Risâle (Aksüt), s. 27-29, 41-46, 51, 71, 84-85, 90 vd. Hezârfen Hüseyin Efendi, Telhîsü’l-beyân fî Kavânîn-i Âl-i Osmân (nşr. Sevim İlgürel), s. 143 vd. Eyyûbî Efendi Kānûnnâmesi (nşr. Abdülkadir Özcan), İstanbul 1994, s. 37, 40 vd. Kâtib Çelebi, Fezleke , I, 187 vd. Defterdar Sarı Mehmed Paşa, Devlet Adamlarına Öğütler: Nesâyihü’l-vüzerâ ve’l-ümerâ (haz. Hüseyin Ragıp Uğural), Ankara 1969, s. 67 vd. a.mlf., Zübde-i Vekayiât (haz. Abdülkadir Özcan), Ankara 1995, s. 12, 55, 85, 168, 192, 197, 199, 240, 290, 432, 502, 533, 543, 575. D’Ohsson, Tableau général , VII, 310 vd. Hammer, Staatsverfassung und Staatsverwaltung, I-II, tür.yer. Ahmed Cevâd, Târîh-i Askerî-i Osmânî, İstanbul 1299, I, 2 vd. Cevdet, Târih , I, 37; XII, 166 vd., 185. Mahmud Şevket Paşa, Osmanlı Teşkilât ve Kıyâfet-i Askeriyyesi, İstanbul 1325, s. 2-7. Marsigli, Osmanlı İmparatorluğunun Askeri Vaziyeti , s. 68-101, 153 vd. Uzunçarşılı, Saray Teşkilâtı , tür.yer. a.mlf., Kapukulu Ocakları, I-II. a.mlf., Merkez-Bahriye, tür.yer. A. H. Lybyer, Kanuni Sultan Süleyman Devrinde Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun Yönetimi (trc. Seçkin Cılızoğlu), İstanbul 1987, s. 54 vd., 91-94, 97-98. Halil İnalcık, Fatih Devri Üzerinde Tetkikler ve Vesikalar, Ankara 1987, tür.yer. a.mlf., “Mehmed II.”, İA , VII, 511 vd. Pakalın, II, 173-175. Abdülkadir Özcan, “Altı Bölük”, DİA , II, 531. a.mlf., “Buçuktepe Vak‘ası”, a.e. , VI, 343-344. a.mlf., “Devşirme”, a.e. , IX, 254-257. a.mlf., “Gurebâ Bölükleri”, a.e. , XIV, 201-202.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2001 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 24. cildinde, 347-349 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.