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KASSÂM Skip to content Vefat eden kimselerin terekelerini taksim eden şer‘î memur.
Sözlükte “bölmek” anlamındaki kısmet masdarından türeyen kassâm “taksim eden, bölüştüren” mânasına gelmektedir. İslâm hukuk literatüründe ganimet, şirket ve miras gibi konularda her türlü menkul ve gayrimenkul malı bölerek şâyi hisseleri belirli hale getiren kişi ya da resmî görevliye kāsım veya kassâm denilmiştir (bk. KISMET ). Daha dar anlamda ve özellikle Osmanlı uygulamasında kassâm, miras davalarında bizzat dava mahalline giderek gerekli tahkikatı yapıp ihtilâf hakkında bir neticeye vardıktan sonra davayı hükme bağlayan ve terekeyi vârisler arasında taksim eden şer‘î memuru ifade etmektedir.
Kassâmlar ikinci derecede adliye görevlilerinden olup hâkimin yardımcılarıdır. İmâm-ı Şâfiî, hâkimin ifa ettiği kazâ fonksiyonunun bir bölümünü üstlendiklerinden kassâmları da hâkimler gibi görmektedir (el-Üm , VI, 212). Fakihlere göre kazâî özellik taşımasından ve kadının nâibi olmasından dolayı kassâmın hâkimlerde arandığı gibi müslüman, âdil, mesleğinin gerektirdiği hukuk bilgisine sahip bulunması Kur’an, sünnet ve fıkhı, özellikle miras hukukunu (ferâiz) iyi bilen, hür, kazf suçu sebebiyle had cezası uygulanmamış, fâsık olmayan kişilerden seçilmesi gerekmektedir (a.g.e. , VI, 210; Serahsî, XVI, 104; Nüveyrî, VI, 260-261; Molla Hüsrev, II, 794-795; İbn Âbidîn, VI, 256-257).
İslâm adliye teşkilâtında kassâmlık müessesesi I. (VII.) yüzyıldan itibaren mevcuttu. Hz. Ali’nin kassâmlık vazifesiyle görevlendirdiği Abdullah b. Yahyâ el-Kindî bu görevi karşılığında devletten maaş alıyordu. Yine Hârice b. Zeyd Emevîler zamanında bu vazifeyi ifa etmekteydi. Kassâmlık Osmanlı Devleti’nde daha bağımsız bir şekil almış, askerî ve reâyâ olarak ikiye ayrılmıştır. Birincisi, yönetici zümreye mensup kişilerin miraslarını kazasker adına vârisler arasında taksim eden askerî kassâm, ikincisi de reâyânın terekesini vilâyet ve sancak kadıları adına vârisler arasında bölüştüren beledî/şehrî kassâmdır.
Askerî kassâmlar ya her kazada veya birkaç kazada ayrı ayrı bulunurdu. İdarî bakımdan Anadolu’dakiler Anadolu kazaskerine, Rumeli’dekiler Rumeli kazaskerine bağlı idiler. Memuriyetleri müddetince “kısmet-i askeriyye” denilen, askerî kişilerin terekelerinin taksimi dolayısıyla tahsil ettikleri resimler bulundukları mahallin kadılığındaki sandıkta saklanırdı. Bu paralar daha sonra kadı veya nâib tarafından askerî kassâm müfettişi yahut süvari kassâmına teslim edilirdi. Merkezden bir görevli gönderilmediği takdirde ilgili bölgenin kadısından güvenilir bir kimse ile rüsûmun gönderilmesi istenirdi (Kayseri Şer‘iyye Sicilleri , nr. 20, s. 64; nr. 27, s. 131). Çeşitli aralıklarla, taşrada bulunan askerî kassâmları teftiş ve rüsûmları tahsil için kazaskerler müfettiş gönderirdi. Anadolu ve Rumeli kazaskerleri tarafından geniş yetkilerle donatılarak taşraya yollanan süvari kassâmları, teftiş için tayin edildikleri bölgede bulunan vilâyet ve kazalarda askeriyeye ait konuları teftiş etmek, gerek şahıslarda gerekse kadı ve nâiblerin nezdindeki sandıklarda birikmiş olan paraları teslim alıp elinde bulunan mühürlü deftere kaydetmek, yolsuzluğu görülen kassâmları uzaklaştırıp yerlerine güvenilir kimseleri tayin etmekle görevliydiler. Askerî kassâm tayinine lüzum göstermeyecek derecede küçük olan yerlerde askerî terekelerinin muameleleri, şehirli veya köylü halka ait miras taksimleriyle görevli mahallin kadısının vekili olan kassâmlar vasıtasıyla yürütülürdü.
Askerî kassâmların görev alanları, askerî sınıf mensuplarının terekelerini taksim ve bu konudaki davaları görmekle sınırlandırılmıştı. Bunlar, sadece görev süresi içindeki davalarda yetkili olup kendilerinden önce meydana gelmiş olan davalara bakmaları yasaktı (BA, MD , nr. CXXXI, s. 147).
Kassâm bulunmayan kaza ve nahiyelerde kassâmın görevini nâibler ifa ederdi. İstanbul civarındaki kaza ve nahiyelerde askerî sınıf mensubu bir kimsenin terekesinin tahrir ve taksim edilmesi gerektiğinde ya nâibler görevlendirilir ya da Kısmet-i Askeriyye Mahkemesi tarafından maiyetine bir çuhadar verilmek suretiyle bir kassâm tayin edilirdi (İstanbul Ahkâm Defterleri , I, 127, 205, 233, 310).
Göreve çıktıklarında, kassâmlar yanlarında mirasa konu malları deftere kaydeden bir kâtiple birlikte muhzır, çuhadar, hizmetçi, miras mallarına değer biçen bilirkişi ve terekeye gözcülük eden dîdebân gibi yardımcılar bulunurdu. Mirasın tahrir ve taksimi için kassâm yerine bazan kassâm kâtiplerine de görev verilirdi. XIX. yüzyılda bunlara mukayyid, zimem mukayyidi, resid mukayyidi ve yamak gibi bir kısım yardımcıların eklendiği görülmektedir.
Kassâmlar yeniçeri terekelerinde de görev almaktaydı. Yeniçerilerden ölenlerin terekelerine el koyan beytülmâlci, kâtip ve müfettişten oluşan kurul içerisinde askerî kassâmlar da yer alırdı. El konan mallar daha sonra satılarak bedeli alınır ve deftere kaydedilirdi. Tereke üzerinde alacak veya veraset dava edenler bulunduğunda yeniçeri beytülmâlcisi, kassâm-ı askerî veya beytülmâl emini bu davalara bakar, haklılığı ispat edilenlere hüccetleri yeniçeri ağası huzurunda verilirdi. XVIII. yüzyıl sonlarında yapılan bir düzenleme ile 5000 kuruşu geçen terekelere mahallî kadılıkların müdahalesi yasaklandı. Bu terekeler, kazasker tarafından görevlendirilen kassâmlar vasıtasıyla taksim ve tahakkuk eden resimleri tahsil edilmeye başlandı.
Kassâmlık müessesesinde XIX. yüzyıla kadar bazı düzenlemeler yapılmıştır (İstanbul Müftülüğü Şer‘iyye Sicilleri , Kısmet-i Askeriyye Mahkemesi, nr. 90, vr. 1a-b ). Bu yüzyılın başlarından itibaren de bu müdahalelere sıkça başvurulduğu görülür. 1803, 1811, 1824, 1838, 1851 ve 1854 yıllarında yapılan düzenlemelerde vârisler talep etmeden miras taksimi yapılmaması, tahriri yapılan terekelerde belirlenen orandan resim alınmaması, yetim mallarının korunması, kâtip ve yardımcılarının terekeden bir şey almamaları, “defterlü ketebe” adıyla bilinen yetkili kâtipler dışında kimsenin tereke tahririne gönderilmemesi, terekeyle ilgili davaların tahrir esnasında görülmeyip tahrir bittikten sonra kazasker veya kassâm huzurunda dinlenilmesi, beytülmâle kalan terekelerde kassâmların kurallara uyması, kâtip ve muhzırların birbirine kefil yapılması, yetimi bulunan terekelerde kassâm ve kâtiplerin dışında Eytâm Nezâreti tarafından bir memur gönderilmesi gibi hususlar yer almaktadır. 1276’da (1859) şer‘iyye mahkemeleri için yapılan yeni bir düzenleme ile evkaf, kassâm ve kazasker mahkemelerinin görev ve yetkileri ayrı ayrı tesbit edilmiştir.
Evâsıt-ı Cemâziyelâhir 1277 (24 Aralık 1860-2 Ocak 1861) tarihli düzenleme ile (BA, MD , nr. CCLXI, s. 13. Halep’te aynı düzenleme için; BA, MD , nr. CCLXI, s. 111) Kısmet-i Belediyye Mahkemesi’nin Bab Mahkemesi’ne ilhak edilmesi, Bab Mahkemesi kâtiplerinin de Kısmet-i Askeriyye, Üsküdar ve Galata mahkemelerinde olduğu gibi birbirlerine müteselsilen kefil yapılarak kendilerinden kefâletnâme alınması, içlerinden birinin başkâtip, birinin mülâzım, onun da hoca kâtip olarak istihdamı ve tereke mallarını zayi edenlerden bunun hemen tazmin ettirilmesi kararlaştırıldı.
21 Şâban 1291’de (3 Ekim 1874) şeyhülislâmlığın nezâreti altında bir başkan, emvâl-i eytâm müdürü ve kassâm-ı askerîden oluşan Meclis-i İdâre-i Emvâl-i Eytâm adıyla bir meclis kuruldu (Düstur , Birinci tertip, III, 551). Meclisin görevi yetim mallarının muhasebesini incelemek, İstanbul, Üsküdar, Galata ve Eyüp mahkemelerinde görülen muhallefât davalarına bakmak ve bunların muamelelerini hızlandırmaktı.
Terekelerde birtakım yolsuzlukların görülmesi üzerine 26 Rebîülâhir 1300 (6 Mart 1883) tarihinde maliye hazinesi beytülmâl kassâmlığıyla ilgili yayımlanan otuz altı maddelik bir nizamnâmede (a.g.e. , III, 88-95), suistimalin önünü kesmek için terekelerin müzayedesinden önce beytülmâl kassâmlığı aracılığıyla tahmin ettirilmesi vb. hükümlerle beytülmâl kassâmlığının kimlerin terekelerini yazacağı ve tahrirde kassâm ve kâtiplerin uyacakları usuller bütün ayrıntılarıyla açıklanmıştı.
12 Rebîülevvel 1332 (8 Şubat 1914) tarihli bir kanunla (Düstur , İkinci tertip, V, 352) İstanbul’da bulunan iki kazaskerlik mahkemesi birleştirildi. Ardından 18 Cemâziyelevvel 1335 (12 Mart 1917) tarihli bir diğer kanunla kazaskerlik, muhallefât ve evkaf mahkemeleri dahil bütün şer‘î mahkemelerle bağlı diğer daireler Adliye Nezâreti’ne devredildi. 4 Ramazan 1342 (9 Nisan 1924) tarihli şer‘î mahkemelerin ilgasına dair kanunda bu mahkemelerin bütün görevleri asliye mahkemelerine devredildi. Kassâm mahkemesinin görevini ise asliye mahkemeleri içindeki altıncı hukuk dairesi üstlendi.
Kassâmlığın işleyişinde görev miras taksim işinin mahkemeye intikaliyle başlardı. Mirasın taksimi işi, ya vârislerden birinin müracaatı ya da mahkemenin terekeye müdahale hakkının doğmasıyla mahkemeye intikal ederdi. Mahkemenin müdahale hakkı ise vârisi olmayan, küçük çocukların haklarının korunması gereken ve mîrîye borcu olan terekelerle sınırlı idi. Vârislerin talebi olmaksızın cebren miras taksimi yasaktı. Bu sebeple zorla miras taksim eden kassâmların görevine son verileceği kanunnâmelerde belirtilmiştir (Kānunnâme , vr. 70b ). Kassâm memuru, kâtip ve bilirkişi görevlerini terekenin bulunduğu yerde yaparlardı. Terekeyi oluşturan mallar çeşitlerine göre kassâmın huzurunda kassâm defterine kaydedilirdi. Bilirkişi ve mirasçıların huzurunda piyasayı iyi bilen dellâllerin takdir ettiği değerler eşya ve malların altına yazılırdı. Bu taksim ve değerlendirmenin bir heyet huzurunda yapılması eşyaların kaybı, bir kısmının ortaya konulmayarak diğer mirasçıların zarara uğraması, mal ve eşyaların fiyatının yüksek tutularak fazla resim alınması gibi muhtemel yolsuzlukları önlemek içindi. Vefat eden kişi üzerinde vakfa ait bir alacağın veya malın bulunması durumunda bu öncelikli olarak tahsil edilirdi. Kassâm vasıtasıyla tereke tesbit edildikten sonra tutulan defterin bir nüshası miras sahiplerine bırakılırdı (İstanbul Müftülüğü Şer‘iyye Sicilleri , Kısmet-i Askeriyye Mahkemesi, nr. 3, vr. 72b ). Satışı gereken terekeler yine kassâmın gözetiminde bedestende müzayedeye çıkarılarak satılırdı. Tereke eşyasının evlerde satışı yasaktı. Müzayedeye çıkan malların satışı hemen gerçekleşmeyebilir ve özellikle gayri menkul satışları uzun zaman alırdı. Mallar bedestende görevli münâdîler vasıtasıyla satılır, münâdîler bu görevleri karşılığında belirli bir ücret alırlardı (a.g.e. , nr. 5, vr. 98b ; nr. 50, vr. 1a ). Vârisi olmaksızın ölen kişinin tereke malları tayin edilen bir mübâşir vasıtasıyla satışa çıkarılırdı (a.g.e. , nr. 5, vr. 120b ). Ölen kişinin vârislerinin aynı şehirde bulunmaması durumunda terekesi vefat ettiği bölgenin kassâmı tarafından yazılarak mühürlenir ve vârisin bulunduğu memlekete gönderilirdi (a.g.e. , nr. 5, vr. 135b ). Tereke defterlerinin başında genellikle hangi kassâm döneminde tutulduğu yazılırdı. Bu defterlerde ölen kişinin tanıtımı, mirasa konu emtianın, borç, masraf vb. gider kalemlerinin dökümü, vârislere veya beytülmâle kalan miktar kaydedilirdi.
Kassâmlar, kadı veya kazasker adına tahririni yaptıkları terekeden “resm-i kısmet” adı altında binde 15 ile 25 arasında değişen bir resim alırlardı. Ancak tatbikatta resmî tarifelerden farklı uygulamalar da görülmektedir. Nitekim bu oran binde 8,5 ile 35 arasında değişebiliyordu. Terekeden ayrıca kassâmın payı olarak “kassâmiye” adıyla genelde binde 5 oranında bir kesinti yapılmakla birlikte esasen kassâmiyenin resmî tarifesi çeşitli kanun metinlerinde farklı oranlarda yer almaktadır. Uygulamada ise binde 1,9 ile 9,5 arasında değişen oranlar tesbit edilmektedir.
Kazaskerlerle mahallî kadılar arasında söz konusu resim harçlarının aidiyeti ve askerî kassâmlarla beledî kassâmların hak ve yetkilerinin tayini hususunda zaman zaman anlaşmazlıklar çıkmıştır. Aslında askerî sınıfı oluşturan kesimin bütün hukukî muameleleri kazasker veya onun adına iş gören memurları ilgilendirdiğinden bu şahısların nikâh, köle âzatlık belgesi (ıtknâme), vakfiye tescili, mirasın taksimi esnasında vuku bulan hüccet ve sicillerin tertip edilmesi işlemi ve bunların sonucunda elde edilecek gelir kazasker kassâmlarına aitti. Mahallî kadıların ise kazasker kassâmı bulunmadığı takdirde resimleri alıp mahkemelerinde kazasker için saklamak üzere müdahale hakları bulunuyordu (Kānunnâme , vr. 69a ). Kanunnâmede, kazasker kassâmları ile beledî kassâmlar veya kadılar arasındaki anlaşmazlıkları ortadan kaldırmak ve bu görevlilerin birbirinin alanına müdahale etmemesini sağlamak amacıyla askerî zümreye mensup olan ve olmayan kişiler tanımlanmış ve konuya açıklık getirilmiştir.
Görevli kişilerin zaman zaman usulsüzlüklere başvurdukları konunun çeşitli kanun metinlerine, fermanlara ve dönemin eserlerine yansımasından anlaşılmaktadır. Gerek askerî gerekse mahallî kadı, nâib ve beledî kassâmların davet edilmeden miras taksim etmemeleri ve kısmet bahanesiyle köy ve kasabalara çıkmamaları, konuyla ilgili bütün kanun metinlerinde uyulması gereken temel prensipler olarak yer almaktadır. Ancak bazan bu hükümlere uyulmadığı olmuştur. Kassâm, kadı ve nâiblerin davet edilmeden “ücret-i kadem” adı altında ayakbastı parası ile hüccet ve sûret-i sicil akçesini fazla almamaları, ücretsiz giyecek maddelerini kabul etmemeleri veya yörede tesbit edilmiş resmî fiyat üzerinden ve kendi rızâlarıyla satanlardan almaları istenmekteydi (a.g.e. , vr. 68b ). Mirasçılar içinde bulûğ çağına ermemiş çocuklar varsa vasî tayin etmeleri ve bunlara ait miras taksiminden resm-i kısmet almamaları tembih edilmekteydi. Aynı şekilde taksim edilen urûz ve akardan resim alınmayacağı belirtiliyordu. Miras taksimine haksız müdahalenin yanında resm-i kısmeti daha fazla almak için miras mallarının fiyatlarının yüksek tutulması ve beğenilen eşyanın alınması gibi birtakım yolsuzluklar da yapılmaktaydı. Bulûğ çağına ermemiş çocukların mirasını muhafazaya memur edilen vasîlerin kassâm kâtipleriyle birlikte hareket ederek mirası gizlice evlere kapatıp yarı fiyatına kendilerinin satın aldıkları ve daha sonra eşyayı bedestene götürüp müzayede ile satarak elde ettikleri paraları aralarında bölüştükleri merkeze ulaşan şikâyetler arasındaydı. Kadı ve kassâmların usulsüzlüklerinin önüne geçmek için 1550’de çıkarılan bir fermanla kadıların kazaskerler hesabına askerî kısmet yazmaları uygulamasına son verilerek kendilerinden talep edilmediği takdirde halkın terekesini yazmamaları istenmişti (Akdağ, II, 453). Ancak yapılan ikaz ve alınan tedbirlere rağmen yine de suistimallerin önü alınamamıştır. Bu sebeple XIX. yüzyıla gelindiğinde kassâm, kâtip ve diğer görevlilerin uyması gereken bir dizi yönetmelik ve nizamnâme neşredilmiştir.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
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Ebül’ulâ Mardin, “Kadı”, İA , VI, 45-46.
Cengiz Orhonlu, “Ḳassām”, EI2 (İng.) , IV, 735-736.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2001 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 24. cildinde, 579-582 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.