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SÂSÂNÎLER Skip to content 226-651 yılları arasında hüküm süren bir İran hânedanı.
Adını asıl kurucusu sayılan destan kahramanı, Hükümdar Erdeşîr-i Bâbekân’ın dedesi, İstahr’daki Anahita âteşkedesinin muhafızı Sâsân’dan alır (DİA, XI, 284-285). Partlar’ın (Eşkânîler) son dönemlerinde ve Roma İmparatoru Septimius Sévèrus’un Mezopotamya’yı işgal ettiği yıllarda Fars bölgesinde mahallî bir idareci olan Bâbek vilâyetin neredeyse tamamını birleştirmişti. Bâbek’in ölümünün ardından yerine büyük oğlu Şâpûr, onun çok kısa süren yönetiminden sonra küçük oğlu Erdeşîr geçti (216). Erdeşîr 224’te Hürmüzdegân’da Part Hükümdarı V. Erdevân’ı (Artabanus) yenilgiye uğrattı ve onun da öldürülmesiyle sonuçlanan bu zaferin ardından 226 yılında İran’ın mutlak hükümdarı olarak taç giydi ve “şâhânşâh” (şehinşah) unvanını aldı. Daha sonra taç giydiği Partlar’ın başşehri Medâin’e (Ktesiphon) yerleşti. Devletin sınırlarını doğuda Kirman’a, batıda Elimais’e kadar genişleten ve birçok yeni şehir kuran Erdeşîr 12 Nisan 240 tarihinden itibaren devleti oğlu Şâpûr ile birlikte idare etti. 242’de Şâpûr’un tek başına hükümdar kalmasından Erdeşîr’in o sırada öldüğü anlaşılmaktadır.
I. Şâpûr doğuda Baktriya ve Kuşan’ı ele geçirdi; batıda Roma’ya birkaç sefer düzenledi; Antakya’yı yağmaladı ve İmparator Valerianus’u Edessa (Urfa) savaşından sonra esir aldı. O güne kadar hiçbir Roma imparatorunun başına gelmeyen bu utanç verici olayı zaferini yüceltmek için yaptırdığı taş kabartmalarla ölümsüzleştirdi. Şâpûr, pek çok farklı dinin var olduğu imparatorlukta Maniheizm’in birleştirici bir rol oynayabileceğini düşünerek Mani’yi korudu. Şâpûr’un ölümünden (272) sonra oğlu I. Hürmüz bir yıl, ardından diğer oğlu I. Behram üç yıl kadar hükümdarlık yaptı. I. Behram, Mani’yi derisini yüzdürmek suretiyle öldürttü ve taraftarlarına eziyet etti. II. Behram döneminde (276-293) Romalılar başşehir Medâin’i ele geçirdiler (283) ve Yukarı Mezopotamya ile Ermenistan’ı kendilerine bağladılar. II. Behram’ın arkasından oğlu III. Behram birkaç ay hükümdarlık yaptıktan sonra amcası Nirsih (293-302) tarafından tahttan indirildi. Nirsih, Ermenistan ve Yukarı Mezopotamya’yı geri almaya çalıştıysa da başarılı olamadı ve Dicle nehrinin batısındaki bütün toprakları Romalılar’a vermek zorunda kaldı. 302’de tahttan indirilen Nirsih’in yerini alan II. Hürmüz’ün avlanırken bedevîler tarafından öldürülmesinin (309) ardından Araplar imparatorluğun güney şehirlerini yağmalamaya başladılar. Bu arada, I. Şâpûr’un ölümünden sonra hânedan üzerinde son derece etkili bir hale gelen asiller II. Hürmüz’ün büyük oğlunu öldürdüler, ikinci oğlunu kör ettiler, üçüncü oğlunu hapse attılar ve tahta henüz bebek olan II. Şâpûr’u (309-379) oturttular. II. Şâpûr olgunluk çağına gelince idareyi eline aldı ve baş düşmanları Romalılar’a karşı bir dizi sefere çıkarak büyük başarılar kazandı. Bizans İmparatoru Konstantinos’un Hıristiyanlığı resmî din kabul etmesi üzerine ülkesindeki hıristiyanları bir tehdit olarak gören Şâpûr onlara karşı tavır aldı. Sâsânî hükümdarları içerisinde en uzun süre tahtta kalan Şâpûr 379’da öldüğünde Sâsânî İmparatorluğu en güçlü dönemindeydi; doğudaki düşmanlar ezilmiş, İrmîniye bölgesi kontrol altına alınmıştı.
II. Şâpûr’un ardından gelen, tahttan indirilen ya da öldürülen dört silik hükümdardan sonra gençliğini Hîre’de Lahmî sarayında geçirmiş olan V. Behram (420-438) tahta çıktı ve Lahmîler’in yardımıyla kardeşlerine üstünlük sağladı. Behrâm-ı Gûr adıyla bir destan kahramanı olan V. Behram, Sâsânî krallarının en meşhurudur (DİA, V, 356). V. Behram’ın ardından oğlu II. Yezdicerd tahta çıktı ve hemen Bizanslılar’la barış yaparak doğuda yeniden saldırıya geçen Akhunlar’a (Eftalitler) yöneldi, onları yenilgiye uğratıp Amuderya’nın ötesine sürdü (443). 457’de öldüğünde tahta büyük oğlu Fîrûz çıktı; fakat Akhunlar’a esir düştü (469) ve ağır şartlar altında barışa razı olmak zorunda kaldı. İki yıl süreyle Akhunlar Doğu İran’ı yağmaladılar; her ne kadar Fîrûz karşı koymaya çalıştıysa da ordusu yok edildiği gibi kendisi de öldürüldü. Asiller onun yerine kardeşi Belâş’ı geçirdiler; ancak o da dört yıl sonra gözlerine mil çekilip tahttan indirildi ve yeğeni I. Kubâd (Kavâd, Kavâz) tahta çıkarıldı (488-531). I. Kubâd, Mezdek’in kurduğu, zenginlerin servetlerini fakirlerle paylaşması gerektiğini savunan mezhebe rağbet etti (bk. MEZDEKİYYE). Aslında onun niyeti asillerin gücünü kırmaktı. Ülkede karışıklık çıktı ve asiller Kubâd’ı tahttan indirip yerine oğlu Câmasb’ı (496-498) geçirdiler. Kubâd Akhunlar’a sığındı; iki yıl sonra da onların ordusuyla birlikte İran’a geri döndü. Câmasb savaş yapmadan tahtı bıraktı. Kubâd kendisine karşı gelen âsileri bertaraf ettikten sonra Akhunlar’dan kurtulamadıysa da Bizanslılar’ın karşısında başarılı oldu. Birkaç yeni şehir kurdu, vergilendirme sistemini ve kamu idaresini yeniden düzenledi, ülkeye huzur getirdi. Ölümünde yerine oğlu Enûşirvân I. Hüsrev geçti (531-579). Sâsânî hükümdarlarının en meşhurlarından olan Enûşirvân önemli askerî ve idarî reformlar yaptı. Genelde başarılı bir dış politika izledi. Bu arada Bizans’la mücadelesini sürdürdü, Anadolu ve Suriye’de bazı şehirleri ele geçirdi. Doğuda Eftalit topraklarının bir kısmını ilhak etti. Diğer taraftan Yemen’deki Habeş yönetimine karşı yardım isteyen Himyerî hükümdar ailesinden Seyf b. Zûyezen’i destekledi. Bu dönemde başlayan Sâsânîler’in Güney Arabistan’daki hâkimiyeti İslâm fetihlerine kadar devam etti (a.g.e., XI, 255-256).
Kırk sekiz yıllık bir iktidar döneminden sonra 579’da ölen I. Hüsrev’in tahtına, annesi bir Türk prensesi olduğu için kaynaklarda “Türkzâde” lakabıyla anılan oğlu IV. Hürmüz çıktı. Ancak bu akrabalık Sâsânî-Türk düşmanlığının son bulmasına bir katkı sağlamadı, saltanat yılları savaşlarla geçtiği gibi bu yüzden gelişen bir ayaklanmayla gözlerini ve tahtını kaybetti (590). Hürmüz’ün yerine getirilen oğlu II. Hüsrev’in (Pervîz) ilk on yılı, babasının kumandanı iken ona karşı ayaklanan Behram’ın sürdürdüğü ve onun ardından dayısı Bistâm’ın başlatarak iç savaşa dönüştürdüğü isyanlarla geçti. 601’de iç savaştan galibiyetle çıkıp İran’da tekrar birliği sağlayan Hüsrev, Behram’ın isyanı sırasında yardımını gördüğü Bizans İmparatoru Mavrikios’un öldürülmesini bahane ederek halefi Phokas’a savaş açtı ve onu yendi. II. Hüsrev, İmparator Herakleios döneminde de Bizans ile mücadeleye devam etti. 613’te İrmîniye ve Suriye’ye girip Dımaşk’ı işgal eden Sâsânî orduları ertesi yıl Kudüs’ü zaptederek kutsal haçı ele geçirdiler ve Medâin’e götürdüler. 615’te Anadolu’ya yeniden Sâsânî akınları başladı; 619’da Mısır işgal edildi. Bizans İmparatoru Herakleios, 622 yılında İstanbul’da yapılan büyük bir törenle Sâsânîler’e karşı mücadele için başşehirden ayrıldı; Anadolu toprakları ve İrmîniye bölgesini Sâsânî işgalinden kurtardı. 623’te Sâsânîler’in kutsal şehri Gence, Bizans ordusunun eline geçti ve buradaki Zerdüşt mâbedi tahrip edildi. II. Hüsrev şehirden kaçtı. 626’da tekrar hücuma geçen Sâsânîler, Anadolu’yu aşıp İstanbul’un karşısında Khalkedon’a (Kadıköy) kadar ilerlediler. Aynı zamanda Avarlar tarafından kuşatılan İstanbul’u Bizanslılar başarılı bir şekilde savundu. Avar ordusunun geri çekilmesiyle birlikte Sâsânî kumandanı Şehrbârâz da birlikleriyle Suriye’ye döndü. Bu arada II. Hüsrev’in kumandanlarından Şâhin, Herakleios’un kardeşi Theodoros tarafından mağlûp edildi. Herakleios’un 627 yılı sonunda Ninevâ’da (Ninova) Sâsânîler’in ana ordusunu kesin bir yenilgiye uğratmasıyla asırlardır devam eden Bizans-Sâsânî mücadelesi Bizans’ın üstünlüğüyle sonuçlanmış oldu. Herakleios Ocak 628’de II. Hüsrev’in sığındığı Destgird’e girdi. Hüsrev aynı yıl başşehirde meydana gelen ayaklanmada öldürüldü. Hz. Peygamber, dönemin bazı devlet başkanlarına İslâm’a davet mektupları gönderdiği sırada (7/628) II. Hüsrev’e de Abdullah b. Huzâfe es-Sehmî ile bir mektup göndermiş, onun elçiye hakarette bulunarak mektubu yırtması üzerine kisrânın mülkünün paramparça olması için beddua etmiştir. II. Hüsrev’in ölümü uzun savaşlarla zayıf düşen ülkede kaos yarattı ve on dört yıl içerisinde on iki hükümdar (ikisi Hüsrev’in kızı) tahta geçti. 632’de asiller II. Hüsrev’in torunu olan henüz çocuk yaştaki III. Yezdicerd’i tahta çıkardılar. Aynı yıl ilk Arap akınları başladı. İslâm orduları Kādisiye (15/636) ve Nihâvend (21/642) savaşlarında Sâsânîler’i yenilgiye uğratarak son hükümdarları III. Yezdicerd’i doğuya doğru çekilmeye ve topraklarını peyderpey teslim etmeye mecbur bıraktılar. 651 yılında düşmanları tarafından Merv’de öldürülen Yezdicerd’in sülâlesine mensup olanlar VIII. yüzyılın ortalarına kadar Çin sarayında sürgün hayatı yaşadılar.
Sâsânî toplumunda hiyerarşinin başı şehinşahtı. Kendisinde “fer” adı verilen ilâhî bir gücün bulunduğuna ve bu gücün Erdeşîr’in V. Erdavân’ı yenmesinden sonra Part hânedanından Sâsânî hânedanına geçtiğine inanılırdı. Her hükümdarın kendine özgü bir tacı olması ve otoritesi sarsıldığı takdirde yeni bir taç yaptırması gerekiyordu. Güçlü hükümdarların haleflerini tayin etmeleri ve asillerle rahiplerin kabulünü sağlamaları beklenirdi. Şehzadeler taşraya vali gönderilir ve bu süreç içerisinde devleti yönetme yeteneğine sahip olup olmadıkları tecrübe edilirdi. Sâsânî toplumu dört sınıfa ayrılırdı: Rahipler, askerler, kâtipler ve halk. Bu ayırım kesin hatlarla yapılmıştı ve bir sınıftan diğerine geçmek mümkün değildi. Her sınıfın bürokratik bir yapısı vardı, her sınıfın temsilcisi o sınıfı divanda temsil ederdi.
“Mûbed-i mûbedân” (mûbez-i mûbezân) denilen başrahip çok güçlüydü ve hükümdarlar taçlarını onun elinden giyerlerdi. Askerler sınıfına “büzürgân” (büyükler) denilirdi. Doğrudan şehinşaha bağlı, fakat iç işlerinde nisbeten bağımsız olan büzürgân eski Part aşiretlerinden ve yeni topraklardan getirilen ailelerden oluşurdu; devletin en önemli makamları onlara aitti. Bunlar kendi gelirleriyle orduyu beslerdi ve Ortaçağ Avrupası’nda olduğu gibi zırhlı süvari birlikleri vardı. I. Hüsrev’e kadar devam eden bu durum askere maaş bağlanmasıyla sona erdi. En alt kademede “azadân” bulunuyordu. Azadân ağalara benziyordu ve İran toplumunun bel kemiğini teşkil ediyordu.
Sâsânî İmparatorluğu’nda yahudiler ve hıristiyanlar da yaşamaktaydı. Özellikle Hıristiyanlığın Bizans’ın resmî dini olmasından sonra Bizans İmparatorluğu’na sempati göstermekle suçlanan hıristiyanlar dışlanıyor ve kötü muamele görüyordu. Aynı şekilde yahudiler de zaman zaman baskılara maruz kalıyorlardı. Sâsânî hâkimiyetindeki hıristiyanlar çoğunlukla Nestûrî idi. Nestûrîliğin 431’deki Efes Konsili’nde sapkın mezhep ilân edilmesinin ardından bu hıristiyanların kilise ile bağlarını kesmeleri Sâsânî İmparatorluğu’ndaki konumlarının düzelmesine yol açtı. Daha sonra kurulan müslüman devletlerin, özellikle de Abbâsîler’in devlet teşkilâtında ve vergi sisteminde Sâsânîler’in etkisi göz ardı edilemez.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA Taberî, Târîḫ (Ebü’l-Fazl), bk. İndeks; İbnü’l-Esîr, el-Kâmil, bk. İndeks; Nüveyrî, Nihâyetü’l-ereb, XV, 166-195; A. Christensen, L’Iran sous les Sassanides , Copenhague 1944; R. N. Frye, The Heritage of Persia, London 1962, tür.yer.; A. Bausani, Die Perser, Stuttgart 1965; K. Erdmann, Die Kunst Irans zur Zeit der Sasaniden, Mainz 1969; Fr. Altheim – R. Stiehl, Geschichte Mittelasiens im Altertum, Berlin 1970; R. Göbl, Sasanian Numismatics, Braunschweig 1971; M. Back, Die Sassanidischen Staatsinschriften, Leiden 1978; CHIr., III/1, III/2, IV, tür.yer.; Hüsâm Asgarî, ʿAẓamet-i Temeddün-i Sâsâniyân, Tahran 1386 hş.; Hasan Pirnîyâ, Târîḫ-i Îrân ez Âġāz tâ İnḳırâż-ı Sâsâniyân, [baskı yeri ve tarihi yok] (Kitâbhâne-i Hayyâm), s. 179-277; İsrafil Balcı, “Arap-Sâsânî İlişkileri (M. 500-650) ve Irak’ın Erken Dönem İslamlaşma Süreci”, İkinci Orta Doğu Semineri, Dünden Bugüne Irak, Bildiriler (ed. Mustafa Öztürk – Enver Çakar), Elazığ 2006, I, 157-178; V. F. Büchner, “Sâsânîler”, İA, X, 244-248; M. Morony, “Sāsānids”, EI2 (İng.), IX, 70-83; Enver Konukçu, “Behrâm-ı Gûr”, DİA, V, 356; Ahmed Tefazzülî, “Enûşirvân”, a.e., XI, 255-256; Tahsin Yazıcı, “Erdeşîr”, a.e., XI, 284-285; Işın Demirkent, “Herakleios”, a.e., XVII, 211; Casim Avcı, “Kisrâ”, a.e., XXVI, 71.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2009 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 36. cildinde, 174-176 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.