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SEBE Skip to content Yemen’de hüküm süren bir devlet (m.ö. X. yüzyıl öncesi [?]-115).
Adını devletin kurucusu olarak bilinen Sebe b. Yeşcüb b. Ya‘rub b. Kahtân’dan alır. Bu kişinin isminin Abdüşems olduğu, savaşlarda esir ele geçiren ilk Arap hükümdarı olması ve Yemen’e çok sayıda esir (sebâyâ) getirmesi sebebiyle kendisine Sebe lakabının verildiği söylenir. Bâbil, Horasan ve Mısır’da büyük fetihler gerçekleştirdiği, esir ve ganimetleri bu ülkelerden getirdiği rivayetleri de vardır. Kur’ân-ı Kerîm’de ve Sebe kitâbelerinde Sebe bir toplum adı olarak geçer.
Sebe (Sabâ, Seba) Devleti’nin kuruluş tarihi bilinmemektedir. Bazı araştırmacılar, Sebe b. Yeşcüb’ün Kahtân’dan sonra Yemen Arapları’nın atası sayılmasını ve Kur’ân-ı Kerîm’de sadece onun adının geçmesini delil göstererek bölgede kurulan en eski devletin Sebe olduğunu ileri sürmüş, milâttan önce yaklaşık 2500 yıllarına ait Sumer kitâbelerinde geçen “sâbâ” ve “sâbâm” kelimeleriyle Sebe Devleti’nin kastedilme ihtimalinden hareketle Sebe’nin tarihinin milâttan önce üç binli yıllara uzandığı tahmininde bulunmuştur. Bazıları ise Kuzey Arabistan’dan geldikleri kabul edilen Sebeliler’in Yemen’e Maîn, Katabân ve Hadramut halkından üç yüzyıl sonra milâttan önce 1200 yıllarında göç ettikleri kanaatindedir. Hz. Süleyman’ın zamanını (m.ö. 972-932) dikkate alarak bu devletin milâttan önce X. yüzyıl öncesinde kurulduğunu ileri sürenlerin yanı sıra Sebe’den bahseden kitâbelerin en eskisinin milâttan önce VIII. yüzyıla ait olmasından hareketle kuruluşu IX. yüzyılın ortasına taşıyanlar da vardır. Öte yandan Sebe Devleti’nin komşuları Maîn, Katabân ve Hadramut devletlerinden önce veya sonra kurulduğu konusu hâlâ tartışmalıdır.
O dönemdeki bölge devletlerinden kalan eserler arasında Hz. Süleyman’la Sebe melikesi arasında geçen olaylardan bahseden bir kitâbeye rastlanmamıştır. Ancak bir Amerika Birleşik Devletleri heyetinin yaptığı kazı çalışmaları sırasında Me’rib’in yaklaşık 40 mil doğusundaki Fâreh vadisinde milâttan önce X. yüzyıla ait kalıntılar bulunmuştur (Ahmed Hüseyin Şerefeddin, s. 72-73). Sebe Devleti’nden ilk defa VIII. yüzyılın ortalarına ait Asur kitâbelerinde açıkça söz edilmiştir. Bu hususta bilinen ilk kitâbede Sebe hükümdarının (mukarrib) Asur Kralı III. Tiglath-pileser’e (m.ö. 745-727) altın, deve, kıymetli taşlar ve baharat cinsinden vergi ödediği belirtilir. Daha sonraki kitâbelerde bu verginin II. Sargon’a (m.ö. 721-705) ve sonraki hükümdarlara verildiği zikredilir. Asur fetihleri Yemen’e ulaşmadığına göre bu verginin Sebe kervanlarının Akdeniz kıyılarındaki şehirlere ve özellikle zamanın önemli bir ticaret merkezi olan Gazze’ye geçmesine izin verilmesi için ödendiği düşünülmektedir. Yunan edebiyatında Yemen’e yapılan en eski atıf Theophrastos’un (ö. m.ö. 288) eserinde mevcut olup burada Yemen’deki üç devlet ve bölgedeki gelişmişlik hakkında bilgi verilmiştir. Onu Yemen’i dört topluma ayıran Eratosthenes (ö. m.ö. 196) takip eder. Strabon da Sebeliler’in sosyal ve ekonomik durumlarına dair bilgi aktarmış, başşehirlerinin Maryaba (Me’rib) olduğunu söylemiştir.
Ahd-i Atîk’te Sebe (Şeba) halkının kökeni hakkında bilgi verilmekte (Tekvîn, 9/7, 32), Sebe kraliçesinin Hz. Süleyman’ı görmek ve peygamber olup olmadığını anlamak için baharat, altın ve kıymetli taşlardan oluşan hediyelerle birlikte Kudüs’e geldiği, ziyareti sırasında ona iman ettiği ve kendisine verilen hediyelerle ülkesine döndüğü bildirilmektedir (I. Krallar, 10/1-13; II. Târihler, 9/1-9, 12). Ayrıca Sebe, Suriye ve Mısır’a güzel kokulu bitkiler satan, bilhassa günlük temin eden ve buralara altın ve kıymetli taşlar ihraç eden bir toplum olarak gösterilmektedir (Mezmurlar, 72/15; Hezekiel, 27/22-23, 38/13; Eremya, 6/20; Eyub, 6/19).
Kur’ân-ı Kerîm’de iki sûrede Sebe’den söz edilir. Neml sûresinde (27/20-44) danışma meclisi bulunan bir kadın hükümdarın yönettiği Sebe’nin zengin ve güçlü bir ülke olduğu, halkının güneşe taptığı, Hz. Süleyman’ın bu melikeye elçi göndererek onu ve halkını müslüman olmaya çağırdığı, meseleyi barış yoluyla halletmeye çalışan melikenin Kudüs’e gidip Süleyman’la bizzat görüştüğü ve bu görüşme sırasında onun cismanî ve ruhanî gücü karşısında gerçek bir peygamber olduğunu anlayıp kendisine iman ettiği ve hâkimiyetini tanıdığı anlatılır. Tarih ve tefsir kaynaklarında Hz. Süleyman’ın onunla evlendiği veya Hemdân melikiyle evlendirip görevinde bıraktığına dair rivayetler yer alır (bk. BELKIS). Adını bu toplumdan alan Sebe’ sûresinde ise (34/15-21) maddî refaha sahip güçlü Sebe toplumunun bunca nimete rağmen şeytana uyup Allah’a kulluktan yüz çevirdiği ve bu sebeple büyük bir sel felâketiyle (Arim seli) cezalandırıldığı, verimli arazilerinin çorak topraklara, türlü nimetlerin mahrumiyetlere dönüştüğü belirtilmektedir. Tarihçiler, seddin yıkıldığı zaman hususunda milâttan önce IV. yüzyıl ile milâdî VI. yüzyıl arasında değişen tarihler vermektedir. Bu farklılık felâketin muhtelif zamanlarda tekrarlanmış olmasıyla da açıklanabilir (bk. ARİM).
Tarihçiler Sebe Devleti’ni iki döneme ayırır. Mukarribler Dönemi (m.ö. ? – m.ö. 650). Hükümdarların “mukarrib” unvanı taşıdığı, Sebe’nin Maîn ile çağdaş olduğu bu dönemde ülkenin sınırları kuzeyde Maîn, güneyde ve güneybatıda Katabân, doğuda Hadramut topraklarına, doğuda ve güneyde ise denize ulaşıyordu. Mukarrib unvanının ilâhlara kurban takdim etmekle alâkalı olduğu, kralın ilâhenin mümessili veya onunla insanlar arasında vasıta sayıldığı kabul edilir. Buna göre Sebe meliki dinî ve siyasî erki birleştiren rahip-kraldır. Bu unvanla bilinen, ilk barajları yaptırarak ziraatı geliştiren ve Me’rib’in batısında bir günlük mesafedeki Sirvâh’ı başşehir edinen ilk hükümdarın milâttan önce X. yüzyılın son çeyreğinde hüküm sürdüğü tahmin edilir. Çok sayıdaki Sebe kitâbesinde Mukarribler döneminde hüküm süren yirmi civarında hükümdarın adı tesbit edilmiştir. Ancak kitâbelerde onların iktidar süreleri belirtilmediği için bu dönemin toplam süresi iki ile üç asır arasında tahmin edilir (Cevâd Ali, II, 269; birinci ve ikinci dönem Sebe hükümdarlarının isimleri ve saltanat süreleri hakkında Fritz Hommel, Rhodokanakis, Philby ve Rycmans tarafından hazırlanan farklı listeler için bk. a.g.e., II, 306-314, 347-352). İsimleri bilinen Sebe hükümdarlarının üçüncüsünün zamanında milâttan önce 740 yılı civarında komşularıyla başlayan savaşlar, “mukarribü Sebe” unvanı taşıyan hükümdarların sonuncusu ve melik unvanı taşıyanların birincisi olan Kariba-il Vitar zamanında şiddetlenmiş ve Sebe’nin üstünlüğüyle sona ermiştir. Me’rib’in batısında kalan harabeler arasındaki başşehir Sirvâh’ta hüküm sürdükleri bu dönemin en görkemli binası ay ilâhına ait Almakah Tapınağı’dır. Bu mâbedin Belkıs’ın köşkü olması ihtimali üzerinde durulduğu gibi Mukarribler döneminin ilk yıllarında yapıldığı da söylenir. Bir kitâbede mâbedin çevre duvarının en eski hükümdarlardan Yada’-il tarafından inşa ettirildiği belirtilir. Günümüze ulaşan duvarlarında müsned yazı kitâbeleri bulunan saray ve köşk kalıntıları ülkenin maddî refahını göstermektedir. Her yönden dağlarla kaplı Sirvâh vadisinde yapılan büyük baraj da önemlidir. Her yerleşim biriminin veya kabilenin, kendilerini koruduğuna ve birliklerini sağladığına inandıkları özel tanrısı vardı. Şehrin veya kabilenin büyüğü devlete ve tanrılara ait vergileri alır ve asker toplama görevini yürütürdü.
Melikler Dönemi (m.ö. 650-115). Mukarriblerin sonuncusu ve meliklerin ilki olan Kariba-il Vitar saltanatının ilk yıllarında komşuları Maîn, Katabân ve Hadramut hükümdarlarıyla şiddetli savaşlar yapmış ve onları itaat altına alıp ülkesinin sınırlarını genişleterek Yemen bölgesinin tamamına hâkim olmuştur. Bu zaferlerinin ardından ülkenin genişlediğini gösteren “melikü Sebe” unvanını alarak aynı zamanda devlet başkanının din adamlığı vasfından soyutlandığı Melikler dönemini başlatmıştır. Kariba-il Vitar, zafer kitâbesi olarak bilinen Sirvâh Mâbedi’nin cephe duvarındaki mermer kitâbesinde savaş ve zaferlerini, sulama işlerindeki hizmetlerini, yaptırdığı barajları, diktirdiği hurma bahçelerini anlatmış, itaat altına aldığı hükümdarların ve ele geçirdiği bölgelerin isimlerini yazdırmıştır. Diğer bir kitâbede de zaferlerin ardından gerçekleştirilen imar faaliyetleri, bazı şehirlerin surla çevrilmesi, Me’rib Seddi’nden dağılan kanalların tanzimi, yaptırılan saray ve köşkler tanıtılır. Onun oğlu Yeda el-Beyyin’in, devlete ödeyecekleri bir vergi ve askerî hizmet karşılığında toprakları kabilelere tahsis ederek vergi ve asker toplama işini kabile reislerine bıraktığı zikredilmektedir (a.g.e., II, 161, 166).
Milâttan önce V. yüzyıldan sonra Hemdân kabilesi etkili olmaya başlamış, ülkede çıkan karışıklıklar Reydânlılar, Hadramutlular, Katabânlılar ve Himyerîler’i harekete geçirmiştir. Hânedan mensupları arasındaki ihtilâflar yüzünden çıkan iç savaşlar sıkıntıları daha da arttırmıştır. Milâttan önce II. yüzyılın ortalarında iktidarı ele geçiren Hâşidîler çeyrek asır hüküm sürebilmiş, Sebeliler tahtlarını geri almayı başarmışlarsa da ancak on yıl daha dayanabilmişlerdir. Bu defa Sebeliler’in akrabalarından olan Himyerî kabilesinin lideri Yeşerha b. Yahdup Sebe’yi ele geçirmiş ve melikü Sebe ve Zû Reydân unvanıyla Himyerî Devleti’ni kurmuştur (m.ö. 115). Böylece yaklaşık beş yüzyıl devam eden Sebe Devleti Melikler dönemi de sona ermiştir.
Eski coğrafyacılar Sebeliler’in kalabalık bir toplum olduklarını, verimli topraklara sahip bulunduklarını, güzel kokulu bitkiler yetiştirdiklerini, ticarette ve ziraatta ilerlediklerini zikrederler. Mevsimlik rüzgârları iyi bilen Sebe ticaret filosu Hindistan’la ticareti tekeline almıştı. Hindistan, Çin, Somali ve Sumatra’dan getirilen mallar Uman sahilinde boşaltılıp Sebe kervanları tarafından Kızıldeniz’e, oradan Mısır, Suriye ve Filistin’e taşınırdı. Mısır piramitlerinin buhur ihtiyacı buradan karşılanırdı. Kur’ân-ı Kerîm’de işaret edildiği gibi Sebe toplumu son derece gelişmişti. San‘a’nın doğusunda geniş ve yüksek bir ova üzerinde ticaret yollarının kavşağında bulunan Me’rib, Arabistan’ın güneyinde ilk defa kurulan ve bölgenin tamamını egemenlik altına alan güçlü bir devletin başşehri olmanın yanı sıra Sebe medeniyetinin en önemli merkeziydi. Ülkelerarası ticaretteki başarıları ve meşhur barajları sayesinde geliştirdikleri ziraatçılıkla büyük servetler edinen Sebe hükümdarları başta Me’rib olmak üzere Necran, Gurâb ve Nakbülhucre gibi büyük şehirlerde kalıntıları günümüze ulaşan çok sayıda saray, köşk, mâbed ve kale inşa etmişler, şehirlerin etrafını surlarla çevirmişlerdir. Diğer mimari eserler yanında Me’rib Barajı mühendislik alanında gelişmişliğin bir sembolüdür. Sedden bahseden en eski kitâbeler 623 yılına aittir. Me’rib’de bulunan Evâm (Avvâm) Mâbedi halk tarafından Mahrem Belkıs adıyla bilinmektedir.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA Hemdânî, Ṣıfatü Cezîreti’l-ʿArab (nşr. Muhammed b. Ali el-Ekva‘ el-Hivâlî), Riyad 1397/1977, s. 65, 220-221, 359-365; Mes‘ûdî, Mürûcü’ẕ-ẕeheb (Abdülhamîd), II, 180, 183, 192; Ahmed Hüseyin Şerefeddin, el-Yemen ʿabre’t-târîḫ, Âbidîn 1384/1964, s. 67-80, 90-153; Cevâd Ali, el-Mufaṣṣal, II, 258-352; Neşet Çağatay, İslâm Öncesi Arap Tarihi ve Cahiliye Çağı, Ankara 1971, s. 14-17; J. Ryckmans, “Some Remarks on the Late Sabaean Inscriptions”, Sources for the History of Arabia (ed. Abdurrahman Tayyib el-Ensârî v.dğr.), Riyad 1399/1979, I, 57-68; A. F. L. Beeston, “Some Features of Social Structure in Saba”, a.e., I, 115-124; a.mlf., “Women in Saba”, Arabian and Islamic Studies (ed. R. Bidwell – G. R. Simith), London 1983, I, 7-13; a.mlf., “Sabaʾ”, EI2 (İng.), VIII, 663-664; Hitti, İslâm Tarihi, I, 79-87; M. Abdülkādir Bâfakīh, Târîḫu’l-Yemeni’l-ḳadîm, Beyrut 1985, s. 51-164; Hasan İbrâhim, İslâm Tarihi, I, 42-46; M. Yahyâ el-Haddâd, et-Târîḫu’l-ʿâm li’l-Yemen, Beyrut 1407/1986, I, 217-251; Tevfîk Burrû, Târîḫu’l-ʿArabi’l-ḳadîm, Dımaşk 1988, s. 72-79; Cemâl Abdülhâdî M. Mes‘ûd – Vefâ M. Rif‘at Cum‘a, Cezîretü’l-ʿArab, Mansûre 1410/1990, I, 79-136; Adnan Tersîsî, Bilâdü Sebeʾ ve ḥaḍârâtü’l-ʿArabi’l-ûlâ, Beyrut 1410/1990, s. 68-76; M. Zebâre, el-Enbâʾ ʿan Devleti Belḳīs ve Sebeʾ, [baskı yeri yok] 1404/1984 (ed-Dârü’l-Yemeniyye), s. 9-16; Abdullah Hasan eş-Şeybe, Dirâsât fî târîḫi’l-Yemeni’l-ḳadîm, Tâiz 1999-2000, s. 12- 23, 53-70, 96-100, 285-340; Hamîd b. İbrâhim el-Mezrû‘, “Naḳş teʾsîsî li’l-Meliki’s-Sebeʾî Kerib İl Vitâr Yühniʿm”, ed-Dâre, XXX/1, Riyad 1424/2004, s. 119-123; J. Tkatsch, “Seba”, İA, X, 267-288; Casim Avcı, “Me’rib”, DİA, XXIX, 187-188; Gus W. van Beek, “Marib”, The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East, New York 1997, III, 417-419; Şükrân Harputlî, “Sebeʾ”, el-Mevsûʿatü’l-ʿArabiyye, Dımaşk 2004, X, 646-648.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2009 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 36. cildinde, 241-243 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.